Abstract: Disclosed embodiments are related to techniques for implementing Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communications in Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC) systems and networks. V2X system scenarios characterized by high mobility and dynamic topologies, where the accuracy and timeliness of radio network information, location information may be hampered by environmental conditions and deployment density of network infrastructure. The disclosed embodiments provide a V2X Information Service (VIS) framework for cooperative acquisition, partitioning, and distribution of information for efficient, journey-specific quality-of-service (QoS) predictions. The VIS framework identifies space/time correlations between radio condition/quality data collected in V2X system(s) and a vehicle's planned journey for better prediction of the radio conditions/quality of the communication network along the designated route. As a consequence, the VIS may expose journey-specific information about the QoS prediction to authorized devices.

Abstract: A user equipment (UE) and base station may be configured to implementing trigger-based joint TX-RX sensing for channel access. In some aspects, the UE may monitor, via a receiver, for one or more transmissions from a first base station, detect, during the monitoring, interference associated with a pre-grant communication, the pre-grant communication associated with a future communication between a second base station a second user equipment, and transmit, via a transmitter, a reservation communication to the second base station in response to the pre-grant communication. In some aspects, the UE may receive the one or more communications from the first base station, without interference from the second base station, based on transmitting the reservation communication.

Abstract: According to the present disclosure, there is provided an improved method for quickly, efficiently and securely confirming the authenticity of an identification tag. There is also provided an identification tag for use with the method, and a system for implementing the method.

Abstract: Various embodiments comprise a wireless communication network to support Internet Protocol Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) voice calling. In some examples, the wireless communication network comprises Call Session Control Function (CSCF) circuitry and E.164 Number Mapping (ENUM) circuitry. The CSCF circuitry receives a Mobile Originating Session Initiation Protocol (MO IMS) invite message from an originating User Equipment (UE). The CSCF circuitry performs an ENUM query for the destination number to route the invite to the terminating UE network. The ENUM circuitry responds with routing information and realm information for the terminating UE. The CSCF circuitry stores the realm type in association with the MO SIP invite and transfers the MO SIP invite. The CSCF circuitry receives an error response from the peer network for the SIP invite. The CSCF circuitry determines if retry is allowed based on the realm type. If retry is allowed, the CSCF circuitry transfers a retry request.

Abstract: A wireless communication system for a moving vehicle, said wireless communication system comprising: a plurality of routers, each router being configured to receive and transmit wireless data communication to and from a stationary communication server outside the moving vehicle through at least one exterior mobile network via at least one antenna; receive and transmit data packets to and from at least one client onboard the moving vehicle; and communicate with every other router in said moving vehicle in order to receive and transmit data packets to and from said every other router, thereby forming an onboard router network.

Abstract: Methods and apparatuses are provided in a wireless communication system. Packet data convergence protocol (PDCP) configuration information that configures a PDCP entity of the terminal to use an uplink data compression (UDC) is received from a base station. The PDCP entity generates a UDC header and a UDC data block, based on the PDCP configuration information. The PDCP entity ciphers the UDC header and the UDC data block. The PDCP entity generates PDCP data including a PDCP header, the ciphered UDC header and the ciphered UDC data block. The generated PDCP data is transmitted to the base station. A header compression is not configured in case that the UDC is configured.

Abstract: Granting access to a communication channel for a user device by a base station includes receiving, from a user device, a request to access the communication channel, the request including a random access preamble and a payload, attempting to decode the payload, selecting a format of a response message in accordance with whether the payload was decoded successfully, and transmitting, to the user device, the response message, including providing an indication of the format of the response message to the user device.

Abstract: A method and a device are disclosed for address resolution protocol (ARP) operation in a communication system supporting multiple links. An operation method of a first device comprises the steps of: receiving, from a communication node, an ARP request packet requesting the transmission of a MAC address of a second device connected to the first device; finding, in an ARP table stored in the first device, a representative MAC address of the second device requested by the ARP request packet; and transmitting an ARP response packet including the representative MAC address to the communication node.

Abstract: The present invention discloses a communication method having data transmission sorting mechanism. Whether an object under process is a mobile terminated object is determined. When the object under process is the mobile terminated object, a processing priority is set to be the highest priority, a receiving process is performed and response content is generated when required. When the object under process is a mobile originated object, a transmission process is performed, the processing priority is set according to a processing priority setting of a related transmission entity and the mobile originated object is added to a transmission list. When an object transmission is not able to be performed, the response content is added to a response list. When the object transmission is able to be performed, the response content in the response list is transmitted first and the mobile originated object in the transmission list is transmitted subsequently.

Abstract: In a method of real-time network monitoring and location updating, a location report is received by an unmanned aerial system application enabler (UAE) server from a location management (LM) server. The location report indicates location information of a user equipment (UE). A first network event notification associated with the UE is received by the UAE server from a network resource management (NRM) server. The first network event notification indicates a connection status of the UE with a network. In response to detecting a re-connected status of the UE, a second networking event notification is received by the UAE server from the NRM server. The second networking event notification indicates that the UE reconnects to the network. Further, (i) the second networking event notification, (ii) an identity of the UAE server, and (iii) most recently updated location information of the UE from the LM server are recorded by the UAE server.

Abstract: This disclosure provides a random access method and apparatus, and user equipment, and belongs to the field of wireless communications technologies. The random access method is applied to user equipment and includes: in a case that a time domain resource for a random access message conflicts with a time domain resource indicated by a network-side message, performing any one of the following: transmitting the random access message on the time domain resource for the random access message; canceling transmission of the random access message; delaying transmission of the random access message; and ignoring the network-side message.

Abstract: Systems and methods are disclosed for vertical integration of a multi-dimensional machine learning algorithm with a digital content management system. A variety of machine learning algorithms are implemented to aid publishers in the discovery of digital content. In contrast to prior methods, which perform retroactive assessments on digital content performance, the instant methods train machine learning algorithms to predict future performance of digital content items. As digital content becomes available to publishers, machine learning algorithms analyze the digital content items in order to present editorial actions publishers should take via a digital content management dashboard.

Abstract: Dynamic network-on-chip traffic throttling, including: determining, by a detector module of a network-on-chip, that a predefined condition is met; sending, by the detector module, a signal to a mediator module of the network-on-chip; and sending, in response to the signal, by the mediator module, an indication to a plurality of agents to implement a traffic throttling policy.

Abstract: A first device in a communication network receives from at least one second device in the communication network, a first request for acquiring a token, the token being permission for communicating with a third device. Based on the first request, a device from the at least one second device and the first device as a communication device is selected for providing a communication service to the third device in the communication network; and the token is transmitted to the communication device. The communication device receives the token for communicating with the third device. Other devices receive key information associated with communication of the third device from the first device, and monitor data associated with the communication of the third device.

Abstract: Proposed are a method and an apparatus for receiving a PPDU over a broadband in a wireless LAN system. Specifically, a receiving STA receives the PPDU from a transmitting STA through a broadband. The receiving STA decodes the PPDU. The broadband is a 320 MHz band or a 160+160 MHz band. The PPDU includes first and second SIG fields. The first SIG field includes information on a broadband bandwidth. The information on the broadband bandwidth consists of 3 bits or 4 bits.

Abstract: Methods and systems to provide service levels for aircraft in-flight connectivity network systems based on service set identifiers (SSIDs) are disclosed. A disclosed method includes providing a first wireless access point having a first SSID; providing a second wireless access point having a second, different SSID; segregating users by providing instructions regarding which of the first and second SSIDs to use to access services; tagging first data received via the first SSID with a first differentiated services code point (DSCP) value; tagging second data received via the second SSID with a second, different DSCP value; and handling the first and second data with different service levels based upon the first and second DSCP values.

Abstract: Managing prefix lists at edge devices can include detecting, at an edge device, a traffic flow that can include a packet that specifies a destination address. The edge device can measure a bandwidth associated with the traffic flow, identify a flow bandwidth threshold defined for the edge device, and determine if the bandwidth associated with the traffic flow satisfies the flow bandwidth threshold. If a determination is made that the bandwidth associated with the traffic flow satisfies the flow bandwidth threshold, the edge device can include the destination address in a prefix list stored at the edge device. If a determination is made that the bandwidth associated with the traffic flow does not satisfy the flow bandwidth threshold, the edge device can omit the destination address from the prefix list stored at the edge device.

Abstract: Techniques for delivery guarantee compliance for an application synchronization service are described. In certain embodiments, a publishing service utilizes its memory queue to receive a request to publish a notification of a modification of a monitored data source from an application synchronization service, and then sends a success code to the application synchronization service based at least in part on the storing of the request to publish the notification in the memory queue. Embodiments herein are directed to a publishing service that delivers messages with a level one Quality of Service (QOS) that indicates that a message will be delivered one time at least.

Abstract: Disclosure discloses method and device in a node used for wireless communication. A first node receives a first information block and a first signaling; and operates a first signal. The first information block is used for determining M first-type indexes out of N first-type indexes; the M first-type indexes are used for determining M1 information elements out of N1 information elements, and for determining M2 information elements out of N2 information elements; the first signaling comprises scheduling information of the first signal, and a first information element is used for determining Rx/Tx parameters of the first signal; when the operating is receiving, the first signaling indicates the first information element out of the M1 information elements; when the operating is transmitting, the first signaling indicates the first information element out of the M2 information elements. The above method streamlines beam management and improves the performance of uplink data transmission.

Abstract: Aspects of the disclosure provide an information reporting method and apparatus, and a terminal and a storage medium, belonging to the technical field of communications. The method can include, during random access, a terminal selecting a downlink beam, the terminal using a random access resource associated with the downlink beam to send a random access request to an access network device. Further, the method can include the terminal sending to a network identification information of the downlink beam selected during the random access procedure. According to the embodiments of the disclosure, by means of reporting to a network identification information of a downlink beam selected by a terminal during random access and then determining whether the terminal has selected all downlink beams suitable for selection, the network accurately positions the reasons for the problems of the terminal during the random access procedure, thereby creating the correct solution.

Abstract: Systems and methods are described for to detecting anomalies in various forms of data, including non-time series data. In one example, a data ingestion interval for customer data may be determined, where the data ingestion interval specifies a frequency at which data is analyzed to detect analogies in portions of the data corresponding to time windows. A portion of the customer data may then be obtained and aggregated from a data source according to the data ingestion interval. The portion of data may be converted into time series data by appending a time stamp corresponding to the time window of the portion of the data. The anomaly detection service may then process the time series data, using a time series data anomaly model, to detect one or more anomalies in the time series data.

Abstract: The present application describes a WTRU including a non-transitory memory including instructions stored thereon for re-establishing a remote radio control (RRC) connection with a base station. The apparatus also includes a processor capable of executing instructions of determining, based upon a measurement in an active downlink bandwidth part (DL BWP), to initiate a random access channel (RACH) procedure. The processor also executes instructions of switching to a default uplink bandwidth part (UL BWP). The processor also executes instructions of initiating the RACH procedure. The process further executes instructions of transmitting a RA preamble using one of the RACH resources configured for the default UL BWP. The processor even further executes instructions of receiving a RA response. The processor yet even further executes instructions of switching from the default UL BWP to either an active UL BWP or another active UL BWP after re-establishing the RRC connection.

Abstract: A system performs efficient domain name system (DNS) based global server load balancing. The system regularly monitors server health of servers that process requests directed to virtual servers. The update server health information is used to process DNS queries that request assignment of servers for processing requests directed to virtual servers. The system maintains metadata describing servers based on user requests associated with virtual servers. The system updates information stored in a database based on requests associated with a virtual server, for example, create, update, or delete information describing a virtual server. The system propagates the updated information to a plurality of data plane clusters. The system receives DNS queries and answers them based on the updated information describing the servers.

Abstract: A method for handling call originations is provided. The method includes sending origination information from a mobile device to an application server in an enterprise network using Short Message Service (SMS) and determining whether a hotline feature is present in a subscriber profile associated with the mobile device. Data is then routed from the mobile device to a predetermined destination based on the hotline feature.

Abstract: As network resources of a network continue to be stretched due to a variety of users and numerous network devices connected to the network, there is a need to provide management of the network resources to optimize access to the network and to provide enhanced QoE for each user of the network without diminishing a particular user's experience. A throttling management application can provide for throttling one or more requests for an asset associated with one or more network devices. A request can be throttled so as to bump higher priority requests in a queue ahead of other network requests based on a throttling factor. The throttling factor can be associated with a throttling management profile that provides a priority to certain requests of certain network devices without delaying requests from other network devices.

Abstract: A process for service chain instance pool sizing receives service requests for processing in a 5G network by a service function chain, of the 5G network, providing network function(s) to process the service requests. The method determines an average number of service requests to be processed, and determines a number of service chain instances to exist in a pool of service chain instances, of the service function chain, as a composite of (i) a number of instances to process service requests having arrived and making an initial relay through the service function chain and (ii) a number of instances to process service requests that were re-introduced after having previously arrived. The method additionally indicates the number of service chain instances to exist in the pool to a component responsible for controlling the number of service chain instances in the pool.

Abstract: A network control method is configured to balance the loading of a plurality of processes. The method includes obtaining an IP address of a packet; deleting a portion of bits of the IP address to generate a series according to an IP address entropy distribution; performing a hash function to the series to generate a hash value; performing a modulo operation to the hash value to obtain a remainder; and assigning the packet to a processor of the plurality of processes corresponding to the remainder.

Abstract: Analytics information can be used in a mobile network. Network entities and corresponding methods support the generation of such analytics information. In particular, network entities and methods can facilitate the gathering of information required for the analytics generation. A network entity for analytics generation may be configured to obtain network slice association (NSA) information and/or user plane association (UPA) information from one or more other network entities, where the NSA information indicates a relation between an Access Network (AN) property and a Core Network (CN) property, and the UPA information indicates a network entity configured to transmit data traffic to and/or from a user equipment in the network. Further, the network entity may be configured to provide analytics information, the analytics information being based on the obtained NSA information and/or UPA information.

Abstract: [Object] To reduce the frequency of the occurrence of the transmission collision of frames. [Solution] A communication device, including: a receiving unit configured to receive a frame transmitted by another terminal; a length information acquiring unit configured to acquire length information related to the frame from the received frame; and a transmission frame deciding unit configured to decide a length of a transmission frame on the basis of the acquired length information.

Abstract: A communication device includes a control unit that obtains information related to Quality of Service (QoS) control and determines whether to transmit information indicating whether the QoS can be provided based on the information related to the QoS control; a transmitting unit that transmits the information indicating whether the QoS can be provided based on a result of the determination to another communication device; and a communication unit that executes radio communication to which the QoS control is applied, the QoS control being executed based on the information indicating whether the QoS can be provided.

Abstract: A communication method and an apparatus are provided. The method includes: A common application programming interface framework core function (CCF) network element first sends reference information of an application to a first network element. Therefore, the first network element determines network slice information corresponding to the application; and then the first network element sends the determined network slice information to the CCF network element. In this way, the CCF network element may determine the network slice information corresponding to the application, so that when an API invoker network element searches for an API, the CCF network element can accurately find, based on an API inquiry parameter, the API from a network slice corresponding to the network slice information.

Abstract: A system and method for measuring quality of experience (QoE) satisfaction for an application accessing a CSP network is described. A QoE requirement is associated with an application executed on a mobile device that is communicatively coupled to a CSP network. The QoE requirement for the application includes a QoE latency requirement, a QoE bandwidth requirement, and a QoE packet loss rate requirement. An edge-collection module gathers a radio access network (RAN) data set, and a core network (CN) data set that includes a network data analytics function (NWDAF) data set. The QoE network appliance generates a measured QoE score with the RAN data set, the CN data set, and the NWDAF data set. The measured QoE score is associated with the latency measurement, the bandwidth measurement, and the packet loss rate measurement. A subscriber ID is billed when a charging function determines the measured QoE satisfies the QoE requirement.

Abstract: The present disclosure provides a method in a terminal device having Dual Connectivity, DC, with a master network device and a secondary network device. The method includes: determining, for a split bearer, to split data to be transmitted to the master network device and the secondary network device based at least on a channel occupancy and/or Listen Before Talk, LBT, statistics associated with a connection to the secondary network device; and splitting the data for transmitting to the master network device and the secondary network device over the split bearer.

Abstract: A method for generating a network topology for multiple wireless intelligent devices of a single distributed local network is disclosed. The method includes determining an optimal network topology for the multiple wireless intelligent devices of the single distributed local network. The method further includes generating a plurality of commands to be transmitted to one or more of multiple wireless intelligent devices of the determined optimal network topology. Further, the method includes instructing the plurality of commands to connect the one or more of multiple wireless intelligent devices to generate the determined optimal network topology.

Abstract: A method of communication between a first node and a second node operating in a communications network. The method includes sending, by the first node, to the second node, a first transmission to configure a communication channel between the first node and the second node. The first transmission includes a first frame including a first capability indicator. The first capability indicator indicates a first MU-MIMO capability of a transmitter of the first node. The first multi-user (MU)-MIMO capability includes a first Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) processable by the first node or a first number of spatial streams (NSS) processable by the first node.

Abstract: Disclosed in the present disclosure is a connection releasing method, including: after a timer times out, a terminal device releases the connection between the terminal device and a first network device. Also disclosed in the present disclosure are another connection releasing method, a data processing method, a terminal device, a first network device, a second network device, and a storage medium.

Abstract: Techniques for enforcing an egress policy at a target service are described. In an example, traffic is generated for a customer tenancy, where the traffic is generated by a multi-tenancy service. The traffic can be destined to the target service. The traffic can be tagged by the multi-tenancy service with information indicating that the traffic is egressing therefrom on behalf of the customer tenancy. The customer tenancy can be associated with the egress policy. The target service can determine the egress policy based on the information tagged to the traffic and can enforce the egress policy on the traffic that the target service is receiving.

Abstract: A gateway for retrieving telemetry data from a field device and for transmitting the retrieved telemetry data to a cloud server, wherein the gateway comprises a cloud communication component which is designed to specify periodic request points in time at which an internal gateway request for a current variable value of a variable of the telemetry data is to be made, as well as a field device communication component which is designed to carry out a variable retrieval of the current variable value from the field device at periodic retrieval points in time. The gateway is designed to set the phase of the periodic retrieval points in time relative to the periodic request points in time such that the respective current variable value has already been retrieved from the field device at the request point in time of this gateway request and is present in the field device communication component.

Abstract: A Narrow Band-Internet of Things (NB-IoT) communications link between a wireless access point of a non-cellular network and a cellular base station of a cellular network is implemented and used to support load management operations in a communications system including a cellular network and a non-cellular network. A service management system uses UE performance information and network statistics communicated over the NB-IoT communications link to evaluate network loading with regard to congestion in the non-cellular network. The session management system initiates a communications session for congestion control to offload a session from a congested network to a less congested network. The NB-IoT link is used to communicate session handoff related signaling.

Abstract: An information transmission method, apparatus and device are provided. The method includes: sending an MsgA of a 2-step RA procedure to a network device according to a mapping relationship between a preamble parameter in the MsgA and a PUSCH parameter in the MsgA; wherein the preamble parameter includes a preamble index and a PRACH time-frequency resource, and the PUSCH parameter includes a PUSCH time-frequency resource and a PUSCH DMRS.

Abstract: In some implementations, a security device may receive a traffic flow. The security device may determine an amount of a padding included in the traffic flow. The security device may determine whether the amount of the padding included in the traffic flow satisfies a padding threshold. The security device may perform, based on the amount of the padding satisfying the padding threshold, offloading for the traffic flow. The security device may inspect, based on the amount of the padding failing to satisfy the padding threshold, an entire portion of the traffic flow.

Abstract: Apparatus and methods for guaranteeing a quality of experience (QoE) associated with data provision services in an enhanced data delivery network. In one embodiment, a network architecture having service delivery over at least portions of extant infrastructure (e.g., a hybrid fiber coax infrastructure) is disclosed, which includes standards-compliant ultra-low latency and high data rate services (e.g., 5G NR services) via a common service provider. In one exemplary implementation, “over-the-top” voice data services may enable exchange of voice traffic with client devices in the aforementioned network. A distribution node may use a detection rule to identify received packets as voice traffic, and cause a dedicated bearer to attach to the default bearer, thereby enabling delivery of high-quality voice traffic by at least prioritizing the identified packets thereafter and sustaining the delivery even in a congested network environment, and improving the quality of service (QoS) and QoE for the user(s).

Abstract: Methods, systems, and apparatus, including computer programs encoded on computer storage media, for visualizing network data. In some implementations, a server receives a query for network traffic playback data of network devices. The server extracts data from the query. The server obtains historical network traffic data. The server generates the network playback data by: (i) obtaining a plurality of historical network traffic elements from the historical network traffic data associated with a network device, (ii) obtaining state transitional data for each historical network traffic element of the plurality of historical network traffic elements, (iii) determining whether the state transitional data for each historical network traffic element comprises the prior state, and (iv) in response to determining the state transitional data comprises the prior state, the server appends the state transitional data to the network playback data. The server filters and provides the network playback data.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present disclosure provide methods and apparatuses for requesting traffic characteristics in a wireless network. The apparatuses include a wireless station (STA) device comprising a transceiver and a processor operably coupled to the transceiver. The transceiver is configured to transmit and receive signals. The processor is configured to generate a traffic profile request element that comprises an indication of a request for an access point (AP) to provide, to the STA, traffic characteristics, as observed at the AP, of downlink (DL) traffic between the AP and the STA. The transceiver is further configured to transmit to the AP the traffic profile request element. The requested traffic characteristics are used to determine target wake time (TWT) parameters for a TWT operation between the AP and the STA.

Abstract: A method performed by a User Equipment (UE) in a wireless communications network is provided. When a condition is fulfilled for accessing a target cell, the UE sends a first message to the target network node. The first message indicates that the condition is fulfilled for accessing the target cell. The UE then obtains as a response to the first message, an indication that an access to the target cell is rejected, which indication protects the target cell to be accessed by the UE.

Abstract: A Quality-of-Service (QoS) Management AP is configured to support QoS Management features and to perform a QoS Management Protocol. The AP decodes an Enhanced Add Traffic Stream (E-ADDTS) Request QoS Action Frame (E-ADDTS Req) received from a station (STA) to initiate QoS setup for a traffic stream. The STA may be a QoS Management STA configured to support the QoS Management features and perform the QoS Management protocol. The AP may encode, for transmission to the STA in response to the E-ADDTS Req, an E-ADDTS Response QoS Action Frame (E-ADDTS Resp) which includes a status code to indicate whether the QoS setup has been accepted. When the QoS setup is accepted, the E-ADDTS Resp includes a QoS setup ID within a QoS setup ID field in the E-ADDTS Resp that uniquely identifies the QoS setup for the traffic stream.

Abstract: In an aspect of the disclosure, a method, a computer-readable medium, and an apparatus of a first network node are provided. The first network node may send quality of service (QoS) information and a request to a second network node to configure, based on the QoS information, a backhaul routing path for traffic between the first network node and a third network node via the second network node, the third network node having a signaling connection with the first network node. The first network node may communicate, with the second network node in response to the request, QoS mapping information. The first network node may configure an Internet protocol (IP) header of an IP packet based on the communicated QoS mapping information. The first network node may send the IP packet with the configured header to the second network node for routing through the backhaul routing path.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for seamless real-time transitions across LTE and Wi-Fi networks are disclosed. The disclosed method and apparatus relate to determining which communications networks to use when communicating between a UE and a network within an Enterprise Network (EN). In some embodiments, a Communications Client Application (CCA) operates within a selected UE and a Communications Server Application (CSA) operates on the network side of the Enterprise Network. Both the CCA and the CSA act together in concert to coordinate the transmission of packets between the UE and the network using either LTE or Wi-Fi networks. For seamless communications, some embodiments use a single VPN tunnel through which to transmit data packets. In other embodiments, for seamless communications, two VPN tunnels are used, one for LTE packet transfers, and one for Wi-Fi packet transfers.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for proactively forming flowlets for a flow in a communication network. The method includes monitoring one or more conditions associated with the flow and detecting a trigger signal. Upon detection of activation of the trigger signal, the method further includes transmitting a pause message.

Abstract: A computer method and system for scheduling packets for transmission over a network, via a gateway device having a packet buffer for temporarily storing packets intended for a network device. Upon reception of a packet in the gateway device intended for a network device, a determination is made as to whether the received packet is the start a new packet session for the network device. If yes, the packet is then caused to be forward to the intended network device. If no, then a determination is made as to whether drop the received packet contingent upon a determined current size of the packet buffer (e.g., does it exceed a predetermined packet size threshold value). If the packet is not dropped, then a determination is made as to whether mark the packet for network congestion control contingent upon the determined size of the packet buffer (e.g., does it exceed a predetermined network congestion packet size threshold value). The packet is then caused to be forwarded to the intended network device.