Abstract: A dispersive optical element includes a substrate including a dielectric material, an optical coating arranged on the substrate, and a layer of material including a microscale feature arranged directly on the optical coating.

Abstract: Methods and apparatus are provided for performing back-reflection energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction (XRD). This exhibits extremely low sensitivity to the morphology of the sample under investigation. As a consequence of this insensitivity, unprepared samples can be analysed using this method. For example, in a geological context, whole rock samples become amenable to analysis. A composite diffraction spectrum can be produced using information from different recorded spectra in different energy sub-ranges. The composite spectrum excludes fluorescence signals that would otherwise obscure the diffraction signals.

Abstract: A system for scanning aircraft for concealed threats is provided. The system comprises a vehicle and a manipulator arm attached with a scanning head that can be maneuvered in multiple directions to completely scan an aircraft from the outside. The system uses transmission based X-ray detection, backscatter based X-ray detection or a combination thereof, in various embodiments. The system also includes gamma-ray and neutron detectors, for detection of nuclear and radioactive materials.

Abstract: Method of measuring scattering of X-rays, characterized in that a compound to be analyzed is installed in a receptacle (1) comprising a flat bottom permeable to X-rays, in that an analysis by scattering of the X-rays is carried out by sending a stream of X-rays upwards in the direction of said bottom permeable to the X-rays and by measuring the stream of scattered X-rays that is reflected downwards, and in that a thermostatically controlled fluid at the same temperature as that of the compound to be analyzed in the receptacle is projected towards the flat bottom (3) permeable to X-rays, from outside the receptacle (1), and device for measuring scattering of X-rays characterized in that it comprises a receptacle (1) comprising a bottom shut off by a membrane (3) transparent to X-rays, as well as a diffractometer whose goniometer (4, 5) is installed so as to direct a beam of X-rays from below towards the membrane (3) transparent to X-rays and the detector (5) being installed for the measurement of the X-rays sc

Abstract: A method for analysis includes directing a converging beam of X-rays toward a surface of a sample having an epitaxial layer formed thereon, and sensing the X-rays that are diffracted from the sample while resolving the sensed X-rays as a function of angle so as to generate a diffraction spectrum including a diffraction peak and fringes due to the epitaxial layer. A characteristic of the fringes is analyzed in order to measure a relaxation of the epitaxial layer.

Abstract: A method for analysis includes directing a converging beam of X-rays toward a surface of a sample having an epitaxial layer formed thereon, and sensing the X-rays that are diffracted from the sample while resolving the sensed X-rays as a function of angle so as to generate a diffraction spectrum including a diffraction peak and fringes due to the epitaxial layer. A characteristic of the fringes is analyzed in order to measure a relaxation of the epitaxial layer.

Abstract: An isosurfacial three-dimensional imaging system and method uses scanning electron microscopy for surface imaging of an assumed opaque object providing a series of tilt images for generating a sinogram of the object and a voxel data set for generating a three-dimensional image of the object having exterior surfaces some of which may be obscured so as to provide exterior three-dimensional surface imaging of objects including hidden surfaces normally obscured from stereographic view.

Abstract: A calibration technique is provided that utilizes a standard sample that allows for calibration in the wavelengths of interest even when the standard sample may exhibit significant reflectance variations at those wavelengths for subtle variations in the properties of the standard sample. A second sample, a reference sample may have a relatively featureless reflectance spectrum over the same spectral region and is used in combination with the calibration sample to achieve the calibration. In one embodiment the spectral region may include the VUV spectral region.

Abstract: A device for measuring crystal orientation with an x-ray source using the Laue method and includes an apparatus for mapping a polycrystalline surface having a grain orientation. The apparatus including an x-ray source creating an x-ray beam, the beam having polychromatic photons, the beam collimated to a point on the polycrystalline surface. A two-dimensional x-ray detector with an aperture, the x-ray beam passing through the aperture, the detector detecting and collecting polychromatic photons diffracted from the polycrystalline surface and onto the detector. A means for moving the polycrystalline surface with respect to the x-ray source to collect a plurality of diffracted x-rays which define a Laue pattern. A data processing means to collect Laue patterns of the polycrystalline surface based upon the plurality of diffracted x-rays, the Laue patterns identifying a plurality of crystallographic orientations and a plurality of grain surface areas on the polycrystalline surface.

Abstract: Provided is a method and system for back-reflection X-ray diffraction of a specimen that yields the orientation of a crystalline sample in a quick and an automated way. The method includes setting an approximate pre-selected X-ray detector to specimen distance, subjecting the specimen to X-rays, recording the Laue diffraction pattern, calculating the Miller indices of a fraction of the spots in the resulting pattern, averaging the Miller indices, moving a virtual representation of the specimen by a small amount along a line connecting the film to the specimen, changing the film-to-specimen distance, repeating the calculation, averaging and moving in small angular steps until the virtual representation of the specimen has been moved through a small distance range and best fits to the observed data, and determining the optimum film-to-specimen distance resulting in the smallest average Miller index.

Abstract: An X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence instrument for analyzing samples having no sample preparation includes a X-ray source configured to output a collimated X-ray beam comprising a continuum spectrum of X-rays to a predetermined coordinate and a photon-counting X-ray imaging spectrometer disposed to receive X-rays output from an unprepared sample disposed at the predetermined coordinate upon exposure of the unprepared sample to the collimated X-ray beam. The X-ray source and the photon-counting X-ray imaging spectrometer are arranged in a reflection geometry relative to the predetermined coordinate.

Abstract: Provided is a method and system for back-reflection X-ray diffraction of a specimen that yields the orientation of a crystalline sample in a quick and an automated way. The method includes setting an approximate pre-selected X-ray detector to specimen distance, subjecting the specimen to X-rays, recording the Laue diffraction pattern, calculating the Miller indices of a fraction of the spots in the resulting pattern, averaging the Miller indices, moving a virtual representation of the specimen by a small amount along a line connecting the film to the specimen, changing the film-to-specimen distance, repeating the calculation, averaging and moving in small angular steps until the virtual representation of the specimen has been moved through a small distance range and best fits to the observed data, and determining the optimum film-to-specimen distance resulting in the smallest average Miller index.

Abstract: According to an illustrative embodiment disclosed herein, a semiconductor structure comprising a first crystalline substrate and a second crystalline substrate is provided. The semiconductor structure is irradiated with a radiation. Both the first crystalline substrate and the second crystalline substrate are exposed to the radiation. At least one diffraction pattern of a crystal lattice of the first crystalline substrate and a crystal lattice of the second crystalline substrate is measured. A relative orientation of the crystal lattice of the first crystalline substrate and the crystal lattice of the second crystalline substrate is determined from the at least one diffraction pattern.

Abstract: A method and apparatus is disclosed for an electron beam directed energy device. The device consists of an electron gun with one or more electron beams. The device includes one or more accelerating plates with holes aligned for beam passage. The plates may be flat or preferably shaped to direct each electron beam to exit the electron gun at a predetermined orientation. In one preferred application, the device is located in outer space with individual beams that are directed to focus at a distant target to be used to impact and destroy missiles. The aimings of the separate beams are designed to overcome Coulomb repulsion. A method is also presented for directing the beams to a target considering the variable terrestrial magnetic field. In another preferred application, the electron beam is directed into the ground to produce a subsurface x-ray source to locate and/or destroy buried or otherwise hidden objects including explosive devices.

Abstract: An X-ray thin film inspection apparatus including a sample table on which an inspection target such as a product wafer or the like is mounted, a positioning mechanism for moving the sample table, a goniometer having first and second swing arms, at least one X-ray irradiation unit that are mounted on the first swing arm and containing an X-ray tube and an X-ray optical element in a shield tube, an X-ray detector mounted on a second swing arm, and an optical camera for subjecting the inspection target disposed on the sample table to pattern recognition.

Abstract: In accordance with the present invention, an x-ray diffraction apparatus and method are provided in which an x-ray or goniometer head can be adjusted in different directions to allow the head to direct x-rays at a part from various positions. In this manner, measurements can be taken from a wider region of the part without requiring that the part itself be moved or that an operator move the unit, which can be relatively heavy. In one aspect, the head can be rotated about its internal axis so that it can more readily direct x-rays along curved surfaces of parts while keeping a substantially constant distance therefrom. It is preferred that the apparatus be a portable unit including adjustment mounts to allow the x-ray head to be moved in the different directions so that it can be transported for use in the field at the site at which a part is located. In this instance, the unit allows for measurements to be taken from the part while it remains in service.

Abstract: An x-ray diffraction technique for measuring a known characteristic of a sample of a material in an in-situ state. The technique includes using an x-ray source for emitting substantially divergent x-ray radiation—with a collimating optic disposed with respect to the fixed source for producing a substantially parallel beam of x-ray radiation by receiving and redirecting the divergent paths of the divergent x-ray radiation. A first x-ray detector collects radiation diffracted from the sample; wherein the source and detector are fixed, during operation thereof, in position relative to each other and in at least one dimension relative to the sample according to a-priori knowledge about the known characteristic of the sample. A second x-ray detector may be fixed relative to the first x-ray detector according to the a-priori knowledge about the known characteristic of the sample, especially in a phase monitoring embodiment of the present invention.

Abstract: A snapshot backscatter radiography (SBR) system and related method includes at least one penetrating radiation source, and at least one substantially transmissive radiation detector. The substantially transmissive radiation detector is interposed between an object region to be interrogated and the radiation source. The substantially transmissive radiation detector receives and detects forward radiation from the radiation source before transmitting a portion thereof to interrogate the object region, wherein a portion of backscattered radiation provided by the object region is detected by the detector. A changeable collimating grid having a plurality of spaced apart radiation absorbing features is coupled to structure changing a position of the plurality of features and is disposed in at least one of the path of the forward radiation and the path of the backscattered radiation.

Abstract: Apparatus for analysis of a sample includes a radiation source, which is adapted to direct a converging beam of X-rays toward a surface of the sample. At least one detector array is arranged to sense the X-rays scattered from the sample as a function of elevation angle over a range of elevation angles simultaneously, and to generate output signals responsively to the scattered X-rays. The detector array has a first configuration in which the detector array senses the X-rays that are reflected from the surface of the sample at a grazing angle, and a second configuration in which the detector array senses the X-rays that are diffracted from the surface in a vicinity of a Bragg angle of the sample. A signal processor processes the output signals so as to determine a characteristic of the surface layer of the sample.

Abstract: In one embodiment, a portable apparatus adapted to be battery powered is used to scan an object in situ with x-rays and measure the intensity of the diffracted x-rays. The apparatus includes a scanning head having an x-ray source that is battery powered and an x-ray detector. The x-ray source and the x-ray detector are aligned in one of a plurality of predetermined alignments such that x-rays from the x-ray source are incident upon an object at a specific angle and the x-ray detector is aligned to detect x-rays that are diffracted at a specific angle, wherein the specific angle is a Bragg angle for a particular plane of atoms in the object.

Abstract: In accordance with the present invention, an x-ray diffraction apparatus and method are provided in which an x-ray or goniometer head can be adjusted in different directions to allow the head to direct x-rays at a part from various positions. In this manner, measurements can be taken from a wider region of the part without requiring that the part itself be moved or that an operator move the unit, which can be relatively heavy. In one aspect, the head can be rotated about its internal axis so that it can more readily direct x-rays along curved surfaces of parts while keeping a substantially constant distance therefrom. It is preferred that the apparatus be a portable unit including adjustment mounts to allow the x-ray head to be moved in the different directions so that it can be transported for use in the field at the site at which a part is located. In this instance, the unit allows for measurements to be taken from the part while it remains in service.

Abstract: An x-ray diffraction apparatus and method are provided in which an x-ray or goniometer head can be adjusted in different directions to allow the head to direct x-rays at a part from various positions. In this manner, stress measurements can be taken from a wider region of the part without requiring that the part itself be moved or that an operator move the unit, which can be relatively heavy. Preferably, the apparatus is a portable unit including adjustment mounts to allow the x-ray head to be moved in the different directions so that it can be transported for use in the field at the site at which a part is located to allow for measurements to be taken from the part while it remains in service.

Abstract: In one embodiment, a portable apparatus adapted to be battery powered is used to scan an object in situ with x-rays and measure the intensity of the diffracted x-rays. The apparatus includes a scanning head having an x-ray source that is battery powered and an x-ray detector. The x-ray source and the x-ray detector are aligned in one of a plurality of predetermined alignments such that x-rays from the x-ray source are incident upon an object at a specific angle and the x-ray detector is aligned to detect x-rays that are diffracted at a specific angle, wherein the specific angle is a Bragg angle for a particular plane of atoms in the object.

Abstract: This invention provides a measurement device that includes both an X-ray reflectometer and a thermal or plasma wave measurement module for determining the characteristics of a sample. Preferably, these two measurement modules are combined into a unitary apparatus and arranged to be able to take measurements at the same location on the wafer. A processor will receive data from both modules and combine that data to resolve ambiguities about the characteristics of the sample. The processor can be part of the device or separate therefrom as long as the measurement data is transferred to the processor.

Abstract: This invention provides a measurement device that includes both an X-ray reflectometer and a thermal or plasma wave measurement module for determining the characteristics of a sample. Preferably, these two measurement modules are combined into a unitary apparatus and arranged to be able to take measurements at the same location on the wafer. A processor will receive data from both modules and combine that data to resolve ambiguities about the characteristics of the sample. The processor can be part of the device or separate therefrom as long as the measurement data is transferred to the processor.

Abstract: A method is disclosed for determining the three-dimensional atomic structure of systems that are periodic in two dimensions, a-periodic in the third dimension, and are commensurate with an underlying three-dimensional crystal. The system is considered as composed of two components: an unknown system periodic in two dimensions, a-periodic in the third with an unknown structure and a known system also periodic in two dimensions with a known structure. The two systems are commensurate with each other. The method provides the structure of the unknown and therefore of the entire system.

Abstract: This invention provides a measurement device that includes both an X-ray reflectometer and a thermal or plasma wave measurement module for determining the characteristics of a sample. Preferably, these two measurement modules are combined into a unitary apparatus and arranged to be able to take measurements at the same location on the wafer. A processor will receive data from both modules and combine that data to resolve ambiguities about the characteristics of the sample. The processor can be part of the device or separate therefrom as long as the measurement data is transferred to the processor.

Abstract: A radioisotope based x-ray residual stress analysis apparatus having a shielded, monoenergetic radioisotopic source to emit x rays for measurement of the stress state of a polycrystalline material. The isotropic source is selected from spontaneously emissive radioisotopes emitting photons in the 5-100 keV energy range. The emissions of the source assembly are measured using either a conventional, solid-state, position sensitive detector or a gas filled position sensitive proportional counter (PSPC). In addition to normal residual stress analysis, the use of a PSPC allows the identification of characteristic photons emitted by particular isotopes to identify trace elements within a sample. As a result of the minimal shielding required for the source assembly and the small size of the isotropic source, the x-ray residual stress analysis apparatus of the present invention is uniquely suited to be configured with an area detector.

Abstract: A novel method and novel apparatus that are capable of selecting, with a computer, reference Bragg reflections pc1 and pc2, which form a basis for determination of the crystallographic orientation of a crystal sample by the two-reflection method, automatically and easily and accurately, wherein; firstly, x-ray intensities and diffraction conditions of all Bragg reflections which are measurable are calculated using the crystallographic information, secondly, a weight-point according to both the x-ray intensity and the angle between the sample normal and the scattering vector is obtained for each of the Bragg reflections, thirdly, two Bragg reflections having the two largest weight-points are selected as the reference Bragg reflections pc1 and pc2, respectively.

Abstract: Evolutionary algorithms are used to find a global solution to the fitting of experimental X-ray scattering data to simulated models. A recombination operator combines two or more parameter vectors from one iteration of simulated scattering data to form a new parameter vector for the next iteration, in a manner such that there is a high probability that the new parameter will better fit the experimental data than any of the parent parameters. A mutation operator perturbs the value of a parent vector, to permit new regions of the error function to be examined, and thereby avoid settling on local minima. The natural selection guarantees that the parameter vectors with the best fitness will be propagated into future iterations.

Abstract: A method for identifying desired features in an off-orientation crystal uses radiation, such as x-rays, directed toward the crystal in a first direction to detect a unique region in a first direction. Based on identifying the unique region, the location of a desired feature, such as a key growth line, is approximated. Radiation is then directed at the crystal in a second direction transverse to the first direction to determine the precise location of the desired feature. The method can be performed automatically by a programmed x-ray device.

Abstract: A film thickness measuring method comprises the steps of measuring reflectances of X-rays on a film, extracting interference oscillations from the measured X-ray reflectances, and Fourier transforming the interference oscillations to compute a film thickness of the film, an average reflectance being given by fitting the measured X-ray reflectances to an analysis formula including a term of a product of a power function of an incident angle, which expresses attenuation of reflectances on a smooth surface of the film and an exponent function which expresses influence of roughness of the surface of the film, and a constant term expressing a background added to the product; the interference oscillations being given by using the measured X-ray reflectances and the average reflectance. The film thickness measuring method can extract interference oscillations of a reflectance curve by a method including arbitrariness and by a simple procedure.

Abstract: For obtaining a high reflectivity, even when the thickness of periodic structure is reduced, in a multi-layered mirror consisting of alternate layers of a first substance showing a larger difference vacuum in the refractive index in the soft X-ray region and a second substance showing a smaller difference, a nickel-chromium alloy containing chromium in at least 5 wt. % is used as the first substance of larger difference. In a preferred form of the mirror, the second substance of smaller difference in refractive index is vanadium oxide.

Abstract: In a stimulable phosphor powder diffraction apparatus, a circularly symmetric diffraction pattern is recorded in the stimulable phosphor. The 2-D diffraction pattern is read out, and the resulting signal is processed to produce a 1-D signal representing the average of the 2-D diffraction pattern at points equidistant from the center of the diffraction pattern.

Abstract: A method of measuring the lattice parameter in an unknown single crystal by omparing its diffraction angle to a standard single crystal, on a double-crystal diffractometer is disclosed.

Abstract: Device for measuring the orientation of bulk monocrystalline materials with respect to the crystallographic parameters using the Laue method, consisting, on the one hand, of a Laue chamber including a polychromatic x-ray source, a photographic film support and a collimator placed in the path of the x-rays between the source and the film in the vicinity of the latter defining the optical axis of the Laue chamber, and consisting, on the other hand, of means of support for a bulk specimen, of means of alignment for the chamber and the means of support, and means of determining the orientation of the specimen with respect to the crystallographic axes, characterized in that the means of support comprise at least one specimen-carrier which has a first planar face to receive the specimen, a second planar space perpendicular to the first for immobilizing the specimen, a first reference plane parallel to the first planar face, a second reference face parallel to the second planar face and a third reference plane perpe

Abstract: The invention comprises a method of, and apparatus for, measuring the orientation error in a single crystal. An X-ray beam is reflected from the surface of the crystal while it is rotated, and the orientation error is determined from the figure traced at a detector by the reflected beam. The orientation error may be calculated from the major axes of the traced figure, or, if the X-ray beam contains a characteristic line, from the separation of the two bright spots produced in the traced figure.

Abstract: A Laue camera is provided by incorporating an X-ray source represented by its focus and defined by its two focal dimensions and its exposure angle, a photographic film holder, a collimator taking the form of two diaphragms and placed on the path of the rays between the source and the film, but close to the latter. The X-ray source is used at an exposure angle such that its apparent focal dimensions are of the same size, that the diameter of the openings in the diaphragms is virtually of the same size as the two apparent focal dimensions of the source, that this size is smaller than the average radius desired for a spot in the diffraction diagram obtained from a sample obtained with the aid of this device with the sample being placed close to the surface of the film opposite to the source.