Abstract: A method of treating an obese subject, or a subject having type II diabetes is described. The method includes injecting a therapeutically effective amount of botulinum toxin into the duodenum of the subject. Methods of preventing the development of type II diabetes in subjects such as prediabetic subjects by injection of botulinum toxin are also described.

Abstract: Compositions and methods for treating addiction in a subject are disclosed. In particular, compositions and methods for treating addiction to a dopaminergic psychostimulant are disclosed. In some embodiments, addiction is treated by agonizing bile acid receptors in the subject. For example, in some embodiments, the method comprises administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of a bile acid receptor agonist. In some embodiments, the method comprises surgically diverting bile acids in the subject in a manner suitable to increase circulating bile acids in the subject.

Abstract: Compositions and methods for treating addiction in a subject are disclosed. In particular, compositions and methods for treating addiction to a dopaminergic psychostimulant are disclosed. In some embodiments, addiction is treated by agonizing bile acid receptors in the subject. For example, in some embodiments, the method comprises administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of a bile acid receptor agonist. In some embodiments, the method comprises surgically diverting bile acids in the subject in a manner suitable to increase circulating bile acids in the subject.

Abstract: Compositions and methods for treating addiction in a subject are disclosed. In particular, compositions and methods for treating addiction to a dopaminergic psychostimulant are disclosed. In some embodiments, addiction is treated by agonizing bile acid receptors in the subject. For example, in some embodiments, the method comprises administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of a bile acid receptor agonist. In some embodiments, the method comprises surgically diverting bile acids in the subject in a manner suitable to increase circulating bile acids in the subject.

Abstract: Nitrogen retention in human subjects is promoted by administering .beta.-hydroxy-.beta.-methylbutyric acid (HMB). The amount of HMB administered is effective to conserve protein as determined by reduction in urinary nitrogen. The method can be used with patients having a negative nitrogen balance due to disease conditions, and also with normal elderly persons who are subject to protein loss. The HMB may be administered orally or by intravenous infusion.