Two-stage voltage regulators with adjustable intermediate bus voltage, adjustable switching frequency, and adjustable number of active phases
A two-stage power converter that dynamically adjusts to output current requirements includes a first stage regulator that provides power to a second stage regulator. The first stage can be a buck converter, and the second stage can be a multiple-phase buck converter. The output voltage of the first stage (intermediate bus voltage Vbus) is varied according to the load current to optimize conversion efficiency. To provide maximum efficiency, the Vbus voltage is increased as load current increases. The Vbus voltage provided by the first stage can be varied by duty cycle or operating frequency control. In another embodiment, the switching frequency of the second stage is varied as output current changes so that output current ripple is held constant. In an embodiment employing a multiple-phase buck converter in the second stage, the number of operating phases are varied as output current changes.
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This application is a continuation-in-part (CIP) application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/781,931 filed Feb. 20, 2004, the complete contents of which is herein incorporated by references, and benefit of the priority date thereof is hereby claimed.
DESCRIPTION BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION1. Field of the Invention
The present invention generally relates to high efficiency electrical power supply voltage regulators and, more particularly to improving the efficiency of voltage regulators which must supply power to highly variable loads with extremely wide variation in current requirements.
2. Description of the Prior Art
All electrically operated devices require electrical power and are designed to operate on the type of power which can be provided from the source which is most convenient in view of the intended function. Devices which are generally operated in a fixed location, such as household appliances and other devices having moderate power requirements, are generally designed and constructed to operate on efficiently transmitted alternating current power of a standard voltage while larger power requirements may require multi-phase alternating current power at higher voltages. On the other hand, devices which must be portable for their intended use generally are designed and constructed to be operated on direct current from batteries at a nominally constant voltage.
However, the amount of power which may be stored in and recovered from batteries is necessarily limited, particularly where the size or weight of the batteries must be limited for convenience of the use of the device. Moreover, as a battery is discharged, the voltage obtainable therefrom necessarily varies and decreases as the battery becomes more discharged. The internal resistance of batteries, while low in modern designs, is not negligible and also causes voltage reduction with increased load. While some devices operating on battery power may be tolerant of voltage variation, modern electronic devices using high density integrated circuits, such as may be used in so-called laptop and palm-top computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs) which have recently become popular, increasingly require extremely stable and substantially constant voltage within a tolerance of a few tenths or hundredths of a volt and thus require high quality voltage regulation.
Unfortunately, circuits capable of regulating voltage, even with relatively wide tolerances, necessarily consume a finite amount of power since the output voltage must necessarily be reduced from a higher voltage by causing a voltage drop across some components in the voltage regulator while a current is being supplied. The power consumed is thus, at a minimum, the product of the voltage drop and the current for analog regulators although such power consumption may be reduced somewhat by switching regulators as will be discussed below. If the load is relatively constant, the voltage regulator can be carefully designed to operate with a very low voltage drop and thus may be relatively efficient. However, transient changes in load current may cause corresponding fluctuations in the regulator output voltage unless the voltage is adequately filtered, generally requiring a relatively large storage capacitor or voltage regulation from a higher voltage with a correspondingly larger voltage drop so that peak currents can be supplied from the voltage regulator or a combination of both; either of which necessarily requires features which are generally undesirable in a portable device (e.g. the size and weight of filter capacitors and the increased inefficiency of the voltage regulator coupled with increased battery size and weight to compensate for that inefficiency). Further, power consumed by the voltage regulator must be dissipated as heat in the portable device and the minimum size and weight of the regulator is generally increased by both the current which must be delivered and the heat which must be dissipated. Conversely, for a given voltage regulator and filter and/or battery size and weight, the efficiency of any voltage regulator is necessarily reduced in accordance with the magnitude of changes and frequency of transients in load current it must accommodate and the accuracy of voltage regulation which must be provided.
These interrelated problems are particularly acute in regard to portable data processing devices such as laptop computers and similar device alluded to above. The duration of operation for each use cycle is generally a significant fraction of an hour, at a minimum, while digital processing, memory and logic circuits required therein require extremely close tolerances of voltage regulation, size and weight constraints are severe for commercially competitive designs and, most importantly, the changes in load current are particularly large, especially in modern processor designs with sophisticated power saving circuits. More specifically, modern processors are generally designed to enter one of a plurality of “sleep states” relatively quickly when an operation is completed and no new data or command is entered. Thus, while the peak power requirements of the processor and associated circuitry may be, for example, 50 Watts, the average power consumed is a small fraction of that requirement, for example, an average power consumption of 5 Watts or less. The duty cycle of the peak power consumption may be substantially less than ten percent. Much the same scenario is presented by the display which generally consumes far more power than the processor but which may be blanked after a relatively short period during which the display is unchanged.
Thus, in general and on average, the display represents about 33% of the power load, the processor represents about 10% of the power load while other associated devices such as a hard disk storage, clock, memory, modem, network interfaces and the like, some of which may be intermittent loads, represent slightly less than half of the power load. Thus, at the present state of the art, the voltage regulator may consume an amount of power comparable to that required, on average, by the processor and is thus a significant factor in battery life and a significant limitation on the period of usability of the laptop computer or other portable digital device per battery charge while the efficiency of the voltage regulator is generally comparatively lower than for many other devices in view of the close regulation required and the wide variation in loads which must be accommodated.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONIt is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a voltage regulator of small dimensions and weight and having increased efficiency while capable of accommodating wide variation in current load and high frequency load transients.
It is another object of the invention to provide a two-stage voltage regulator wherein the second stage may be of arbitrary design and constitution while the first stage substantially improves overall efficiency of the voltage regulator by providing a variable bus voltage Vbus.
The present two-stage converter has a first regulator stage, a second regulator stage and a control circuit that controls the first stage. The first stage provides an adjustable intermediate bus voltage Vbus. The second stage receives the bus voltage Vbus and provides an output current. The control circuit responds to the output current, and controls the first stage so that the bus voltage Vbus increases with increasing output current. This arrangement tends to improve the conversion efficiency.
In a preferred embodiment, a switching frequency of the second stage increases as the bus voltage Vbus increases. This tends to further improve conversion efficiency and maintain a constant output current ripple.
Also, in the present converter, the second stage can comprise a plurality of regulators (e.g. buck regulator phases) connected in parallel. The number of active (i.e. operating) regulator phases can be increased as output current increases. This tends to further increase conversion efficiency.
In another embodiment, one of the parallel regulators in the second stage has switches of low current rating (and consequently high switching efficiency). Such a “baby” phase is operable during a very low power mode, which tends to increase conversion efficiency during the low power mode.
The foregoing and other objects, aspects and advantages will be better understood from the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment of the invention with reference to the drawings, in which:
Referring now to the drawings, and more particularly to
In the possibly extended intervals between C0 working periods the processor enters progressively deeper “sleep states” C1, C2 and/or C3 generally depending on the elapsed time prior to another user input or programmed operation; during each of which, progressively less power is consumed by the processor. Each of the “sleep states” generally requires significantly less than 10% of the power required for the C0 state since the average processor power consumed is generally about 10% or less of the peak power requirements. Therefore, it is readily seen that the ratio of peak power requirements and minimum power requirements of a processor substantially exceeds 10:1 and the processor is in one of the low power sleep state for the predominant portion of the time, often exceeding 90%.
Referring now to
While this observation underlies a basic principle of the present invention, suitable arrangements for altering Vbus to a substantially optimum value based on load is not trivial in practice. Providing switching of regulator input voltages require multiple, separate supplies which would each have significant weight and size. Further, some Vbus voltage sources would not be under load at any given time and the voltage delivered is almost necessarily load-dependent and switching from a loaded voltage source to an unloaded voltage source will necessarily involve complications of timing and generation of significant transients in the absence of circuits of substantial size and weight to suppress such transients which, in turn, are likely to compromise overall regulator efficiency in addition to unavoidable loss of efficiency due to the losses and leakage in each of the Vbus supplies while unused.
Further, as will be discussed in greater detail below, the inventors have found that an abrupt change in Vbus causes an anomaly in operation of a voltage regulator receiving Vbus which seriously compromises accuracy of voltage regulation. A solution to this anomaly has been found by the inventors and is discussed in detail below.
As alluded to above, a two-stage configuration is preferred for practice of the invention. This preference is due, in part, to the desirability of providing a generalized arrangement for alteration of the Vbus voltage as a first stage so that the invention can be retrofitted to existing voltage regulators to improve overall efficiency, regardless of voltage regulator design or otherwise implemented in existing designs to reduce space, weight and heat dissipation requirements. Further and perhaps more importantly, a two-stage regulator can produce higher efficiency for high current loads than the single-stage regulators which are currently most frequently employed.
It should be understood in connection with the following discussion that switching voltage regulator designs are generally considered to be most efficient and can generally be implemented with relatively few components. Such designs generally employ a switching transistor in series with the input voltage to supply current as needed with a series inductor to smooth the output voltage input to a filter capacitor with a further transistor at the inductor input to reduce switching transients and provide a source of current for the inductor when the series transistor is switched off. In its simplest form, such a circuit is known as a buck converter (since it converts a higher DC voltage to a lower DC voltage and the inductor “bucks” the excess voltage during series transistor conduction) and many variations on this type of circuit are known to those skilled in the art, as are suitable switching control arrangements to obtain a desired voltage. In general, also, when such converters are employed in a two-stage (or multi-stage) voltage regulator, the first stage in generally operated or switched at a substantially lower frequency than the final stage particularly to minimize output voltage ripple while minimizing the size and weight of filter capacitor(s). While such types of switching converters are assumed in the following discussion, it is to be understood that the invention is applicable to any type of regulator circuit(s) but a switching type of converter is preferred as the first stage of the overall voltage regulator circuit in accordance with the invention in which a two-stage arrangement is also preferred.
The relative efficiency of one-stage and two-stage voltage regulators is graphically illustrated in
As illustrated in
The present invention includes embodiments where the second stage comprises multiple regulators (phases) connected in parallel, with the number of active regulators increasing with increasing output current (as described above). Preferably, as illustrated in
In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the Vbus voltage is varied only when all the second stage regulators are active.
The multiple regulators or phases can be operated in phased relation. For example, if 3 phases are employed in the second stage, as illustrated in
In another aspect of the invention, one of the secondary regulator phases (e.g. phase comprising switches Q1 Q2 in
To convey a more complete understanding of the exemplary power requirement profile of a laptop computer or the like as depicted in
It should be appreciated that changes of processor state are known in advance by and through the processor, itself. More specifically, C0 is the heavy load performance state although a percentage of maximum performance is generally controlled for battery life and thermal considerations and is generally referred to as “throttling”. C1–Cn are light load sleep states. All transitions between the C0–Cn states are possible (e.g. C2–C0, C0 to C1, C2 or C3, etc.) controlled by an Operating System Power Management (OSPM) system running in the CPU. The C1 state is generally indicated through a dedicated processor pin (e.g. the “HLT” pin for Intel 32-bit CPUs). The C2 and C3 states are generally entered by using the P_LVL2 and P_LVL3 command registers or the like, respectively, and similar operations may be provided for other possible sleep states. The Operating System Power Management (OSPM) system controls transitions between different modes and the CPU is aware of a transition generally at least 20 μsec (and often much longer) before the transition is to occur. Moreover, entry into or exit from sleep states C1, C2 or C3 requires some degree of hardware latency. The latency is declared in a Fixed ACPI Description Table (FADT). However, the variations in load during the C0 CPU state are not controlled by the OSPM, are totally unpredictable and may occur in the MHz range under processor clock control and thus cannot be followed by a practical voltage regulator. It is also possible for some momentary high current CPU requirements to occur outside the C0 state which also cannot, as a practical matter, be predicted or tracked by a practical voltage regulator.
Thus, in accordance with the invention in its most basic form, it is proposed to provide a higher nominal Vbus voltage (e.g. 6 volts) for the C0 state and lower nominal Vbus voltage (e.g. 3 volts) for the sleep states; both as indicated through the ACPI in view of the large difference in current requirements between the operating state, C0 and the sleep states, C1–Cn, and the relatively small difference in current requirements of the respective sleep states. It is also preferred in accordance with the basic form and first embodiment of the invention to position Vbus to discrete voltage levels in response to the ACPI rather than measured current requirements to more accurately synchronize the change of Vbus between discrete voltage levels with the CPU operating state although adaptive adjusting of discrete Vbus voltage levels in accordance with a perfecting feature of the first embodiment of the invention or adaptive positioning of Vbus over a continuous range of values (e.g. without providing discrete Vbus voltage levels as in the second embodiment of the invention) could be provided based on other measured or predicted information including measured load current. It should also be understood that more than two discrete, nominal Vbus voltage levels could be provided in the first embodiment of the invention if justified by the power consumption pattern for a particular device (e.g. other than a CPU) to be powered. On the other hand, it is considered by the inventors that, at least for different loads required by a CPU or the like, provision of other voltages through adjustment of either of two nominal (operating state responsive) Vbus voltages in a manner which is responsive to measured current, as will be described in detail below as a perfecting feature of the first embodiment, is preferable to providing additional discrete nominal Vbus voltage levels and provides additional efficiency, as well.
Referring now to
Preferably in accordance with this basic embodiment of the invention, there is no repositioning of Vbus for the duration of any particular CPU state and the Vbus response is rapid and within the period of hardware latency for state transitions alluded to above. Further, since the feedback 140 is through the ACPI which has advance information concerning any change of CPU power state, the change of Vbus may be initiated somewhat in advance of the actual CPU state change and thus closely synchronized with changes in the current requirements of the load.
It was noted above, however, that the inventors have discovered an anomaly in the performance of this arrangement which somewhat compromises the accuracy of voltage regulation and may engender transients and possible errors or malfunctions in the CPU. Specifically, the change in Vbus voltage must be fairly substantial to optimize Vbus for widely differing or varying current loads as discussed above particularly in regard to
More specifically, as illustrated in
A preferred solution to this anomaly is illustrated in
In seeking to address the variation in Vo which may occur during such short transient periods which are the only periods in which the preferred basic embodiment of the invention does not optimally position Vbus, it is ideally desired to make the positioning of Vbus adaptively adjustable to the actual instantaneous current load. These changes are graphically depicted in
Accordingly, as a perfecting feature of the invention, it is proposed to provide a voltage tilt in Vbus to adjust otherwise discrete voltage levels to even more precisely optimize Vbus. It should be noted that the tilt and droop functions illustrated in
This is preferably accomplished in accordance with the circuit shown in
In accordance with this form of the first embodiment of the invention, the current measurement used for the second stage feedback is also fed back to the first stage and applied to a mixing node of voltage comparator 130 to adjust the switching of Q11 and Q12 to adjust Vbus. In this regard, some switching, as will be evident to those skilled in the art (e.g. from a negative mixing node to a positive mixing node), may be required to avoid producing voltage droop at low current loads when Vbus is low. Thus the load current information, iL, usually already available in the second (or single) stage of a voltage regulator, is injected into the feedback loop of the first stage to adaptively adjust the present Vbus level in accordance with the first embodiment of the invention or provide the entire Vbus positioning function in accordance with a second embodiment of the invention while the feed forward arrangement is still advantageously used by adaptive bus voltage positioning (ABVP).
As alluded to above, it is not only possible but preferred for simplicity in accordance with a second embodiment of the invention to provide the entire Vbus positioning function based on the current feedback information iL and omitting the operating state information 140. This second embodiment has the additional advantage that switching transients due to the lower control bandwidth of the first stage may be less severe and the number of information paths in the feedback arrangement to the first stage is reduced and feedback control design simplified but may be limited in regard to precision of synchronization with the operational state since changes in the actual load cannot be measured in advance although any limitation in this regard is likely to be slight. In this case, iL is simply fed back to the negative mixing node for the negative input of voltage comparator 130 to provide continuous adjustment over the entire practical range for positioning of Vbus.
The design principles of the ABVP-AVP system of
As noted above, Vbus cannot respond to high frequency load transients (e.g. in the MHz range.
In the present invention, the first and second regulator stages can comprise many different kinds of regulators. For example, the first stage can comprise a multi-phase buck regulator, which is capable of providing a variable Vbus voltage. Other kinds of regulators that can provide the variable Vbus voltage and can be used in the first stage include full bridge, half bridge, forward or push-pull regulators.
Also, the second stage can comprise a full bridge, half bridge, forward or push-pull regulator. Any of these kinds of regulators will provide the benefit of increase power conversion efficiency when employed as the second stage regulator and receiving the variable Vbus voltage supply. Hence, the present invention and appended claims should be understood to include many different kinds of voltage regulators, connected in series.
An important consequence of the present 2-stage regulator is that the second stage operates at a reduced voltage, and can therefore employ switches with a reduced voltage rating. For example, in a prior art single stage regulator, 30 volt switches may be required, which tend to have high internal resistance values (Rds-on values). By comparison, in the present invention, since the second stage regulator may operate at a nominal voltage in the range of 3–6 volts, lower voltage rating switches (e.g. rated at 12–15 volts) can be used. Low voltage rating switches tend to have much lower internal resistance values, and consequently lower conduction losses.
A further consequence of the reduced operating voltage of the second stage is that the operating frequency can be greatly increased. For example, reducing the operating voltage from 12 volts to about 5 volts can allow an increase in operating frequency from about 350 Khz to about 2 Mhz. This enormous increase in frequency provides other benefits such as allowing for smaller output capacitors and inductors to reduce current ripple, and offering faster transient response.
In conclusion, compared with a single stage regulator, the present two-stage regulator can achieve higher efficiency at higher switching frequencies. Additionally, the size and cost of filtering components (capacitors and inductors) can be reduced. Hence, the advantages of the present two-stage regulators are particularly great when the second stage is made to operate at frequencies of about 1 or 2 Mhz, and the second stage switch devices have voltage ratings in the range of about 5–15 volts.
In another aspect of the present invention, the operating frequency of the second stage is adjusted as output current changes. Adjustment of the operating frequency allows for further efficiency improvements (about 2–3% primarily in the low-load regime), and can provide a output current ripple of constant magnitude (over the entire range of output current).
Ripple=Vout/Lf(1−D)
where Ripple is the peak-to-peak current ripple, Vout is the output voltage, L is the output inductance, f is the switching frequency (for each phase), and D is the duty cycle. Accordingly, the output current ripple varies as shown in
The variation in output current ripple presents a problem in regulator. Specifically, the ripple must be lower than a certain value at all times. However, designing the circuit to accommodate the largest possible ripple requires large filtering components that are unnecessarily large for operating regimes that produce small current ripple. In order to circumvent this problem, and provide other benefits (e.g. increased efficiency) in the present invention, the switching frequency of the second stage is adjusted as the Vbus voltage is adjusted. Specifically, the switching frequency can be adjusted such that either 1) the output current ripple is held constant or, 2) the operating efficiency is maximized. These two desired endpoints might or might not coincide in a particular control scheme for the switching frequency.
Since the switching frequency is inversely proportional to the output voltage, constant ripple magnitude can be achieved by adjusting the switching frequency according to the same curve illustrated in
In conclusion, the variable switching frequency of the second stage regulator provides two substantial benefits in combination: increased efficiency and constant output current ripple. It is noted that the conversion efficiency might be increased by slightly altering the relationship between the switching frequency and output current (i.e. by altering the shape of the curve in
In view of the foregoing, it is readily seen that the invention provides a voltage regulator which is capable of high-quality regulation over an extremely wide range of current loads while maintaining optimal efficiency under all load and transient conditions except for transient recurrence frequencies between the control bandwidths of the first and final stages which generally will be encountered only rarely and/or for only brief periods of time at extremely low duty cycles. The voltage regulator in accordance with the invention is particularly well-suited to and highly compatible with sophisticated power saving arrangements, particularly where very large and very small loads are presented for the predominant amount of time during use where prior voltage regulators have presented conflicting design criteria and exhibited substantial and previously unavoidable inefficiency. Embodiments of the invention suitable for use with CPUs in laptop computers and the like are of particularly simple configuration and can be fabricated at small size and light weight. Power dissipation requirements are thus reduced and usable battery life can be significantly extended.
While the invention has been described in terms of two preferred embodiments and a perfecting feature for the first embodiment, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention can be practiced with modification within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.
Claims
1. A two-stage power converter, comprising:
- a) a first regulator stage providing an adjustable bus voltage Vbus;
- b) a second regulator stage receiving the bus voltage Vbus and providing an output current;
- c) a current sensor for sensing an output current of the second regulator stage; and
- d) a control circuit responsive to an output of the current sensor, wherein the control circuit controls steady state operation of the first regulator stage such that the bus voltage Vbus increases with increasing output current.
2. The two-stage power converter of claim 1 wherein the second stage comprises a plurality of buck regulator phases connected in parallel.
3. The two-stage power converter of claim 2, wherein the plurality of buck regulator phases are activated according to output current, wherein the number of active phases increases with increasing output current.
4. The two-stage power converter of claim 2 wherein one of the plurality of buck regulator phases includes switches with a current rating less than ⅕ the current rating of switches in the other parallel-connected buck regulator phases.
5. The two-stage power converter of claim 2 wherein one of the plurality of buck regulator phases includes switches with a current rating less than 1/10 the current rating of switches in the other parallel-connected buck regulator phases.
6. The two-stage power converter of claim 1 wherein the control circuit varies a duty cycle or operating frequency of the first regulator stage to adjust the bus voltage Vbus.
7. The two-stage power converter of claim 1 wherein a switching frequency of the second regulator stage is responsive to Vbus voltage such that a switching frequency increases with increasing Vbus voltage.
8. The two-stage power converter of claim 7 wherein the switching frequency increases at a rate selected such that an output current ripple varies less than 10% when output current varies over a normal operating range.
9. The two-stage power converter of claim 1, wherein the first regulator stage and second regulator stage comprise a regulator selected from the group consisting of buck, multiple phase buck, full bridge, half bridge, forward and push-pull regulators.
10. A two-stage power converter, comprising:
- a) a first regulator stage providing an adjustable bus voltage Vbus;
- b) a second regulator stage receiving the bus voltage Vbus and providing an output current;
- c) a current sensor for sensing an output current of the second regulator stage;
- d) a control circuit responsive to an output of the current sensor, wherein the control circuit controls steady state operation of the first regulator stage such that the bus voltage Vbus increases with increasing output current, and
- wherein a switching frequency of the second regulator stage increases with increasing Vbus voltage.
11. The two-stage power converter of claim 10 wherein the second stage comprises a plurality of buck regulator phases connected in parallel.
12. The two-stage power converter of claim 11, wherein the plurality of buck regulator phases are activated according to output current, wherein the number of active phases increases with increasing output current.
13. The two-stage power converter of claim 11 wherein one of the plurality of buck regulator phases includes switches with a current rating less than ⅕ the current rating of switches in the other parallel-connected buck regulator phases.
14. The two-stage power converter of claim 11 wherein one of the plurality of buck regulator phases includes switches with a current rating less than 1/10 the current rating of switches in the other parallel-connected buck regulator phases.
15. The two-stage power converter of claim 10 wherein the control circuit varies a duty cycle or operating frequency of the first regulator stage to adjust the bus voltage Vbus.
16. The two-stage power converter of claim 10 wherein the switching frequency varies at a rate selected such that an output current ripple varies less than 10% when output current varies over a normal operating range.
17. The two-stage power converter of claim 10, wherein the first regulator stage and second regulator stage comprise a regulator selected from the group consisting of buck, multiple phase buck, full bridge, half bridge, forward and push-pull regulators.
18. A two-stage power converter, comprising:
- a) a first regulator stage providing an adjustable bus voltage Vbus;
- b) a second regulator stage receiving the bus voltage Vbus and providing an output current;
- c) a current sensor for sensing an output current of the second regulator stage; and
- d) a control circuit responsive to an output of the current sensor, wherein the control circuit controls steady state operation of the first regulator stage such that the bus voltage Vbus increases with increasing output current;
- wherein the second stage comprises a plurality of buck regulator phases connected in parallel, and
- wherein the plurality of buck regulator phases are activated according to output current, wherein the number of active phases increases with increasing output current.
19. The two-stage power converter of claim 18 wherein one of the plurality of buck regulator phases includes switches with a current rating less than ⅕ the current rating of switches in the other parallel-connected buck regulator phases.
20. The two-stage power converter of claim 18 wherein a switching frequency of the second regulator stage is responsive to Vbus voltage such that a switching frequency increases with increasing Vbus voltage.
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Type: Grant
Filed: Dec 22, 2004
Date of Patent: Jul 4, 2006
Patent Publication Number: 20050184713
Assignee: Virginia Tech Intellectual Properties, Inc. (Blacksburg, VA)
Inventors: Ming Xu (Blacksburg, VA), Jinghai Zhou (Blacksburg, VA), Yuancheng Ren (Blacksburg, VA), Fred C. Lee (Blacksburg, VA), Jia Wei (Blacksburg, VA)
Primary Examiner: David M. Gray
Assistant Examiner: Harry R Behm
Attorney: Whitham, Curtis, Christofferson & Cook, PC
Application Number: 11/018,920
International Classification: H02M 3/158 (20060101);