Abstract: A balance shaft includes a housing that is disposed under an engine and a first hole is formed thereto, a balance shaft that is disposed to the housing and a second hole is formed thereto and a mounting pin that is inserted into the first hole through the second hole for mounting the balance shaft.

Abstract: A hybrid powertrain includes an engine having a crankshaft, and a hybrid transmission having an input member, an output member, and at least one motor/generator operable to provide or receive torque. A damper connects the crankshaft with the input member. A bi-directional rotational position sensing system operatively connects with either the crankshaft or an input side of the damper, and is configured to sense the rotational position and direction of the crankshaft, and provide a position signal indicative thereof. At least one controller is configured to receive the position signal and to provide a torque command to the motor/generator based at least in part on the position signal. The torque command is operable to cause the motor/generator to substantially cancel an expected engine torque pulse associated with the sensed rotational position during starting of the engine with the damper open. A method for controlling the hybrid powertrain is provided.

Abstract: The Internal-Combustion Engine is set forth, in which when in use there is no lateral component of the force on the piston which is taken up by the slider rolling by the bearings. As a result of this the cylinder compression is improved, power losses on friction are reduced and wear out of the cylinder is decreased. Also due to the absence of the lateral component of the force on the piston, the latter can be made in a relieved version, e.g. without a skirt and with two compressing rings in one groove.

Abstract: An engine includes a crank mechanism and a balancer mechanism that inhibits vibrations caused by the crank mechanism. An instantaneous center of rotation of an engine is arranged in the neighborhood of a predetermined target position by adjusting an acceleration caused by a translational force generated by a primary inertial force of the crank mechanism and an inertial force of the balancer mechanism and an acceleration caused by a couple of forces generated by the primary inertial force of the crank mechanism and the inertial force of the balancer mechanism.

Abstract: The present application relates to a drive and balance mass. In one example, an engine includes, a camshaft, a balance shaft disposed within an interior of the camshaft, and a first gear, intermediate the balance shaft and the camshaft and driving the balance shaft to rotate about a first axis substantially parallel to a crankshaft of the engine in a direction opposite of the crankshaft. In another example, a balance mass and drive for an engine includes, a planetary gear set including a sun gear, a ring gear and a plurality of pinions mounted on a carrier, an input coupled to an input gear of the planetary gear set, a balance mass coupled to an output gear of the planetary gear set, the output gear configured to drive the balance mass to rotate about a first axis substantially parallel to the crankshaft in a direction opposite of the crankshaft.

Abstract: A balancer of an engine includes a rod and a balancer piston. A first end portion of the rod includes a joining portion which is arranged to be joined to a crankshaft of the engine at a position that is eccentric relative to a rotation axis of the crankshaft. A second end portion of the rod is arranged to reciprocate inside a cylinder according to a rotation of the crankshaft. The balancer piston is fixed to the second end portion of the rod. The balancer piston is arranged to reciprocate inside the cylinder, while rocking between a contact state in which the balancer piston is in contact with an inner wall surface of the cylinder and a non-contact state in which the balancer piston is separated from the inner wall surface. The balancer piston includes a cylindrical outer peripheral portion that is curved so as to swell toward the inner wall surface.

Abstract: An anti-cogging apparatus improves rotation of a rotatable shaft about an axis. The shaft has a cyclical cogging torque acting thereon in a first direction. The anti-cogging apparatus includes a first anti-cogging member and a second anti-cogging member that rotate relative to each other in concert with rotation of the shaft, and the anti-cogging members interact to provide an anti-cogging torque to the shaft in a second direction to at least partially offset the cogging torque.

Abstract: An engine 20 includes a two-plane type crankshaft 30 and a balancer shaft 50 for reducing a primary couple of the balancer shaft 50. The crankshaft 30 includes a crankshaft body 30a and a first gear 38. The first gear 38 is disposed at one axial end side of a first crank web pair 31a disposed at the outermost one axial end side of the crankshaft 30. In the engine 20 including the two-plane type crankshaft, the weight of the engine can be reduced while securing high reliability.

Abstract: The present invention provides an improved method and apparatus for regulating active damping in a hybrid vehicle powertrain. The method includes: monitoring the damping command sent to the active damping system; determining a mean reference point, which may be a filtered value of the damping torque command; determining if the unfiltered damping torque command value switches from one side to the other of the mean reference point; if a switch is detected, determining if the size of the switch exceeds a predetermined minimum; if it does, then increasing a total number of switches; determining if the total number of switches exceeds a switch threshold; if the total number of switches exceeds the switch threshold, determining if the current damping torque exceeds a damping torque threshold; and decreasing the damping torque if the total number of switches exceeds the switch threshold and the current damping torque exceeds the damping torque threshold.

Abstract: An internal combustion engine crankshaft assembly includes a crankshaft having an output device, such as a flywheel or crankshaft damper, fastened to the crankshaft. An electronic engine control device is positioned between the crankshaft and the output device. The electronic engine control device includes a generally planar base which contacts both the output device and the crankshaft. The planar base is coated with a pressure-responsive friction-promoting material which causes the output device to be torsionally locked with respect to the crankshaft.

Abstract: A system for converting the energy created by the ignition of fuel in one or more cylinders of an internal combustion engine to rotational power, having a piston within each of its cylinders, includes one or more first connecting rods, each rotatingly affixed at a first end to the corresponding piston, a master crank to which each such first connecting rod is rotatingly attached at a second, a load crank and one or more second connecting rods, the number corresponding to the number of first connecting rods, each second connecting rod rotatingly affixed at one end to the master crank, and at the other end to the load crank. The second connecting rods may be of the same length as that of the first connecting rods, or of different length.

Abstract: A shaft (1a-d) is provided that is rotatably mounted by a journal (2) in a housing (4) in which lubricant mist is provided. One or several outward-extending ribs (6) extend between the journal and shaft sections (5a, 5b) adjacent to the journal. The shaft is mounted by the journal in the housing using a rolling bearing (3) that is lubricated exclusively by the lubricant mist. At least one of the ribs associated with the journal extends at a certain angle of attack (11, 12) to the axis of rotation of the shaft and is used as a blade for conveying the lubricant mist into the rolling bearing.

Abstract: This disclosure provides crankshaft damper and tone wheel assembly having a low noise characteristic. The crankshaft damper and tone wheel assembly can provides both damping of vibrations excited in a crankshaft of an internal combustion engine and an indication of the rotational speed or position of the crankshaft. The crankshaft damper including a hub portion and a ring-shaped portion connected to the hub portion by plural spokes, and the ring-shaped portion has an inner circumference that surrounds an area including the hub portion and the plural spokes. The tone wheel includes an annular-shaped portion connected to the crankshaft damper and having an inner diameter, an outer diameter, plural teeth arranged at an equal pitch along the outer diameter, and a same rotational axis as the crankshaft damper.

Abstract: A two-plane type crankshaft is provided. The weight of crank webs for the respective cylinders is divided between left and right half webs and balance ratios kL and kR of the half webs for the respective cylinders are set so as to be (kL?0.25)·(0.25?kR)?DR/DL to form a track of a vector of a primary inertial couple into a substantial circle. A primary balancer offsets the primary inertia couple.

Abstract: An engine structure is provided with a bedplate and an oil pan. The bedplate is configured to have an integrally formed balance shaft bearing support. A bearing cap is either a separate component or a component that is formed as an integral part of the oil pan. The bearing cap and the balance shaft bearing support structures are attachable to each other to capture the bearing portions of the balance shafts therebetween.

Abstract: An apparatus and method of controlling vibration-damping for a vehicular internal combustion engine. The combustion is temporarily stopped in some cylinders among a plurality of cylinders, and the engine is operated by the remaining cylinders. Then, a variable valve mechanism which varies a valve lift amount of at least one of intake and exhaust valves of each cylinder is controlled, to decrease the valve lift amount of at least one of the intake and exhaust valves of each cylinder in which the combustion is temporarily stopped. Further, a rotating electric machine having at least one of functions of an electric motor and a generator is controlled, to apply torque to an output shaft of the engine thereby suppressing torque variation in the output shaft at the time when the combustion is temporarily stopped in some cylinders, so that the torque variation due to uneven explosion intervals is reduced.

Abstract: A system adapted for counteracting engine produced vibratory forces and isolating the forces from a body, includes active engine mounts, force or acceleration sensors, and a controller communicatively coupled to the mounts and sensors, and configured to execute an integrated open and closed-loop control method.

Abstract: Secondary vibration generated accompanying reciprocation of a piston (21) of a multi-link variable compression ratio engine (E) can be eliminated effectively, even when the direction of the secondary vibration is inclined relative to a cylinder axis (L1), by inclining the direction (shown by arrow) of an excitation force generated by a secondary balancer system (43) so that it coincides with the direction of the secondary vibration. The secondary balancer system (43) is formed by supporting balancer weights (44a, 45a) on a pair of balancer shafts (44, 45) rotating in directions opposite to each other, and by displacing the phases of these balancer weights (44a, 45a) the direction of the excitation force generated can be inclined so as to coincide with the direction of secondary vibration of the engine (E).

Abstract: A method of generating a crankshaft synchronized sine wave signal for an internal combustion engine is provided. The method includes the steps of: A) sensing an observed crankshaft angle of the crankshaft; B) using a dynamic observer to generate an estimated crankshaft angle from said observed crankshaft angle; and C) generating the crankshaft synchronized sine wave signal as a function of the estimated crankshaft angle. The crankshaft synchronized sine wave signal is preferable output to at least one of an active vibration control system and an active noise control system. An apparatus for generating a crankshaft synchronized sine wave for an internal combustion engine according to the method of the present invention is also disclosed.

Abstract: A tensioner for applying tension to a balancer drive chain is mounted in a balancer housing which accommodates balancer shafts. Oil is supplied from a reservoir chamber to the tensioner. An oil jet member for lubricating the balancer drive chain is mounted at a position downstream in an oil flow direction from the reservoir chamber. Therefore, while enabling foreign matter contained in the oil to be discharged from the oil jet member without being accumulated within the tensioner, a predetermined pressure can be maintained in the reservoir chamber by a resistance to the flow of oil passing through the oil jet member. Also, a constriction is provided between the reservoir chamber and the oil jet member. Therefore, it is difficult for the oil to flow out of the reservoir chamber even after stoppage of an engine, thereby supplying the oil to the tensioner upon the next start of the engine without delay. Thus, it is possible to prevent the foreign matter from entering the tensioner for the balancer drive chain.

Abstract: A fuel injection system for internal combustion engine includes an injector mounted within a pocket formed in the cylinder head, and an isolator which defines a radial clearance gap with the injector pocket. The isolator expands radially outwardly into a clearance gap in response to axially directed force imposed upon the isolator by the injector, so that a dual rate force/displacement effect is achieved by the isolator.

Abstract: A vibration reducing system for an engine is disclosed. The vibration reducing system includes at least one pumping member movable through a plurality of pumping strokes during an engine cycle. The vibration reducing system also includes a controller in communication with the at least one pumping member, the controller being configured to identify a vibration characteristic of the engine. The controller also is configured to adjust the displacement of fuel during at least one of the plurality of pumping strokes based on the vibration characteristic.

Abstract: A hybrid electronic control unit sends a combustion start command to an engine ECU when the rotation speed of an engine reaches a combustion start rotation speed by engine cranking. The engine ECU sends an initial explosion advance notification to the hybrid electronic control unit when the crank position of the engine reaches a specific position prior to an ignition timing of an initial explosion cylinder by a preset crank angle ?ec. Ignition of the initial explosion cylinder is performed at a timing when the crank position is further rotated by the preset crank angle ?ec. The hybrid electronic control unit sends a torque command in view of a counter torque T? to a motor ECU after elapse of a preset time period tv.

Abstract: An active engine mount assembly for counteracting resultant forces in active fuel management systems, wherein resultant forces are transmitted to a frame of a motorized vehicle generated by the deactivation of at least one cylinder in an internal combustion engine. The active engine mount assembly is fluidly connected to a hydraulic circuit. The hydraulic circuit is operatively connected to an engine crankshaft and operable to actively generate pressure pulses having frequencies self-synchronized with the rotational speed of the crankshaft.

Abstract: In a V6 engine that can switch between a first running state and a second running state which differ in the number of cylinders that are permitted to operate, when switching from L3 selective cylinder operation to V4 selective cylinder operation is determined to be required, control of an active vibration isolation support system corresponding to L3 selective cylinder operation is normally continued for one cycle. However, in this case of switching from L3 selective cylinder operation to V4 selective cylinder operation, a vibration pattern of L3 selective cylinder operation continues for longer than usual, that is, for a period greater than one cycle. Therefore, control of the active vibration isolation support system corresponding to the vibration pattern of L3 selective cylinder operation is continued for two cycles of the vibration pattern, thereby further effectively improve a vibrational state when switching between running states from L3 selective cylinder operation to V4 selective cylinder operation.

Abstract: An apparatus which reduces engine noise caused by vibration of the fuel rail in a direct injection internal combustion engine. The apparatus includes a holder which supports a fuel inlet end of the fuel injector in the fuel cup on the fuel rail so that the fuel injector is in alignment with the direct injection fuel port in the engine head. A vibration isolator is sandwiched in between the holder and either the engine head or the fuel cup to reduce the transmission of vibration from the fuel rail to the engine head.

Abstract: A compensator assembly for transmitting torque from a crankshaft of an engine to a clutch in a motorcycle drive train. The compensator assembly includes a cam slider, a sprocket, and a spring pack biasing the cam slider into engagement with the sprocket. The spring pack includes multiple springs having different spring rates. The cam slider includes first and second dissimilar cam members. A retainer is coupled to the crankshaft and formed with an anti-rotation feature engageable to hold the retainer, the cam slider, and the crankshaft stationary during tightening of a retaining bolt. The sprocket includes a plurality of spokes and axial openings. At least a portion of the cam slider extends through one of the plurality of axial openings.

Abstract: A pulser plate mounting structure is provided in which a key groove (14) is formed in a mounting face (10) of a rotating wall portion (9) formed from a crank arm (3) and a counterweight (4), a key portion (16) for engaging with the key groove (14) is formed on a pulser plate (P) that is superimposed on the mounting face (10), and this pulser plate (P) is secured to the rotating wall portion (9) by means of a securing member (18), wherein the key portion (16) is formed from an arched band-shaped portion (16a) projecting in an arched shape from the pulser plate (P) on one end face side thereof and engaging with the key groove (14), and a pair of connecting portions (16b) for providing integral connection between the pulser plate (P) and opposite ends of the arched band-shaped portion (16a). This provides a high precision of positioning of the pulser plate relative to the crankshaft and a good productivity for the pulser plate.

Abstract: A scooter type vehicle provides a pair of right and left frame members in the interior of a vehicle body cover so as to extend substantially horizontally between a head pipe and the front end of a seat. Right and left footrest plates are provided outside on the right and left of the vehicle body cover. An engine is provided between the right and left frame members with the cylinder axis of the cylinder block being provided so as to extend longitudinally, and the center axis of a crankshaft is provided so as to extend laterally and to be located above the upper surfaces of the right and left footrest plates as seen in a side view. A balancer shaft is located below the crankshaft, and the crankshaft and the balancer shaft are sandwiched and supported between the upper and lower case halves with their center axes being located on the joining surface.

Abstract: Systems and methods for controlling shut down of a multiple cylinder internal combustion engine include a mechanical energy storage device to decelerate an engine crankshaft to a stopping position desirable for restarting of the engine. Energy stored during shut down may be used to adjust or reposition the crankshaft to one of a plurality of angular orientations advantageous for restarting, and/or used to rotate the crankshaft during restarting of the engine. A flywheel having a variable mass, such as provided by two or more segments, which may be fixedly or selectively coupled to one or more springs may be used to selectively store and release energy.

Abstract: A method for operating an engine of a vehicle, the engine having one or more deactivatable cylinders, the method including controlling the stability of a vehicle in response to vehicle acceleration, and reactivating or deactivating combustion in at least a cylinder in response to vehicle acceleration.

Abstract: A vehicle system, comprising of an engine with a first cylinder and a second cylinder operating with different engine torques, a motor coupled to said engine capable of absorbing torque and providing torque, and a controller for varying torque of said motor to compensate for said torque difference so that a total engine and motor torque operates with increased balance.

Abstract: An active vibratory noise control apparatus reduces vibratory noise which is produced in the passenger compartment of a vehicle based on vibratory noise generated by a variable-cylinder internal combustion engine that can selectively be operated in a full-cylinder operation mode in which all of the cylinders are operated and a partial-cylinder operation mode in which some of the cylinders are out of operation. The active vibratory noise control apparatus has a partial-cylinder operation mode determining circuit for determining whether the variable-cylinder internal combustion engine is in the partial-cylinder operation mode or not. Depending on a determined result from the partial-cylinder operation mode determining circuit, a transistor is turned on or off to switch an amplifying circuit which drives a speaker into and out of operation.

Abstract: The present invention provides a damping force variator that can damp a vibration even if the frequency of the vibration is high. The damping force variator, which applies a magnetic field to a magnetic fluid flowing through an orifice to vary the magnitude of a damping force, has a float that moves in the orifice when the magnetic fluid flows. If the damping force variator has a cylinder that is filled with the magnetic fluid, and a piston that slides in the cylinder to apply a pressure to the magnetic fluid, the damping force variator functions as a damper that damps a vibration transmitted from the cylinder or the piston.

Abstract: A vibration reducing system for an engine is disclosed. The vibration reducing system includes at least one pumping member movable through a plurality of pumping strokes during an engine cycle. The vibration reducing system also includes a controller in communication with the at least one pumping member, the controller being configured to identify a vibration characteristic of the engine. The controller also is configured to adjust the displacement of fuel during at least one of the plurality of pumping strokes based on the vibration characteristic.

Abstract: An apparatus and method of controlling vibration-damping for a vehicular internal combustion engine. The combustion is temporarily stopped in some cylinders among a plurality of cylinders, and the engine is operated by the remaining cylinders. Then, a variable valve mechanism which varies a valve lift amount of at least one of intake and exhaust valves of each cylinder is controlled, to decrease the valve lift amount of at least one of the intake and exhaust valves of each cylinder in which the combustion is temporarily stopped. Further, a rotating electric machine having at least one of functions of an electric motor and a generator is controlled, to apply torque to an output shaft of the engine thereby suppressing torque variation in the output shaft at the time when the combustion is temporarily stopped in some cylinders, so that the torque variation due to uneven explosion intervals is reduced.

Abstract: A dual crankshaft internal combustion engine is symmetrically constructed to form a perfectly balanced engine assembly. A first crankshaft, having a first end, a second end, and being formed of a shape and with a torsional flexibility, is housed within a cylinder block and connected to a first series of cooperating pistons and cylinders. A second crankshaft, having a first end and a second end, is formed of substantially the same shape as the first crankshaft and has substantially the same torsional flexibility as the first crankshaft. The second crankshaft is also housed within the cylinder block and connected to a second series of cooperating pistons and cylinders, while being positioned parallel to the first crankshaft, with the first end of the first crankshaft being positioned adjacent to the second end of the second crankshaft.

Abstract: A system for a flywheel assembly for use in conjunction with an internal combustion engine is disclosed. The flywheel assembly includes a flywheel in rotational association with a crankshaft of the internal combustion engine. The flywheel assembly further includes a cooling fan mounted over the flywheel, and capable of rotation therewith. The cooling fan and the flywheel are secured in a constant axial position relative to the crankshaft by virtue of a drive-cup and a retaining nut. Further, the flywheel includes a plurality of integrally formed, intersecting support ribs, for providing excellent dynamic stiffening (e.g., damping) capabilities to the flywheel assembly for substantially reducing and/or eliminating radiated noise.

Abstract: A system to reduce rotational speed variations of a crankshaft includes a controller, a braking device, and a control module. The controller deactivates at least one cylinder in an internal combustion engine. The braking device applies a braking torque to the crankshaft when at least one cylinder is deactivated. The control module determines whether the controller has deactivated at least one cylinder and selectively synchronizes the braking torque with a crankshaft rotational speed.

Abstract: The present disclosure utilizes deactivated cylinders in a variable displacement engine to control the torsional vibration of a crankshaft. In a deactivated mode, deactivated cylinders are compressed and expanded by a reciprocating piston, but they are doing no net work and still causing an oscillating torque on the crankshaft. The present disclosure utilizes this oscillating torque to counter torque from the active cylinders. This is done through controlling the gas pressure in the deactivated cylinders by using intake and exhaust values to equalize the pressure between the cylinder and ports. The optimum gas pressure in deactivated cylinders to minimize total torque fluctuations is approximately one-half that of the active cylinders. A closed control loop adjusts gas pressure in the deactivated cylinders to cancel out torque from the active cylinders.

Abstract: A method of forming a metal matrix component and product that comprises forming scrap sheet metal material, shredding the scrap sheet metal material to a predetermined size range, filling the shredded scrap sheet metal material into a compacting die, adding an adhesive material to the shredded scrap sheet metal material in the compacting die, compressing the shredded scrap sheet metal material and curing the adhesive to form a metal matrix component. The product comprises an inertia ring that may be used in a crankshaft damper.

Abstract: A controller (20) estimates an internal cylinder pressure of an engine (1) on the basis of the operating conditions of the engine (1), torque variation in the engine (1) is calculated on the basis of the estimated internal cylinder pressure, and an opposite phase torque of the torque variation in the engine (1) is calculated as a torque correction amount. The controller (20) then calculates a torque command value for a motor generator (2) by adding the torque correction amount to a basic torque value for driving the motor generator (2) to rotate, and performs torque control such that the torque of the motor generator (2) equals the torque command value.

Abstract: A rotational balance adjustment structure for an engine includes; a damper pulley having an elastic member provided on the outer periphery of a hub and a damper mass provided on the outer periphery of the elastic member; and an engine assembly having an engine body and a plurality of parts mounted on the engine body, the plurality of parts including the damper pulley. The engine assembly is assembled by mounting a plurality of parts to the engine body, the plurality of parts including the damper pulley, and the rotational balance of the engine assembly is adjusted by attaching a balance piece to the damper mass.

Abstract: The method includes reducing output of one or more cylinders of an engine system without reducing output of the remaining cylinders of the engine system. The method also includes reducing imbalance of the engine system by supplementing the engine system with power in response to the output reduction of the one or more cylinders.

Abstract: A clutch damper includes a one-way clutch in combination with a tuned torsional damper incorporated into an accessory belt pulley assembly configured for mounting to the outboard end of the crankshaft of an internal combustion engine. The clutch damper is advantageously applicable for use with electric hybrid vehicles having automatic engine off periods during normal vehicle operation. The clutch damper permits belt driven accessories to be electrically driven when the engine is off. The damper is tuned to dampen torsional vibration present at the crankshaft, thereby extending the life of the crankshaft and the one-way clutch.

Abstract: In a crankshaft of an in-line four-cylinder engine, an arm that is closest to a flywheel has a greater average thickness in a direction of the rotation axis of the crankshaft than those of other arms. Two of the arms that are coupled to both sides of the third journal from the flywheel each have a center of gravity closer to its own counterweight compared to the centers of gravity of the arms that face the two arms with corresponding crankpins in between. Accordingly, the rigidity against torsional deformation and the thickness of oil films on the journals are reliably maintained while suppressing increase in the weight of the entire crankshaft.

Abstract: The invention is directed to develop for the high power by means of replacing the flywheel with the ducted fan installed in the front position to convert into the rotating force of said fan connected with the rotating operation of the crankshaft of the engine with the strong force enough to reduce the number of the cylinder in the engine while keeping the driving force as well as the stable condition remain as unchanged.

Abstract: A torsional vibration damper hub assembly for a motor vehicle engine includes, in an exemplary embodiment, a hub formed from a filled thermoplastic material and having an outer wall. The thermoplastic material includes at least one filler. The assembly can also include a metal sleeve molded into the hub where the sleeve is overmolded with the filled thermoplastic material, an inertia ring positioned inside the hub, a rubber insert positioned between the inertia ring and the outer wall of the hub, and an end cap coupled to the hub enclosing the inertia ring the said rubber insert inside the hub.

Abstract: A method for operating an internal combustion engine of a vehicle traveling on the road, the method comprising of damping engine vibration with a damper coupled to the engine, and when said damping is reduced, preventing engine speed from falling below a threshold value, at least under selected operating conditions, to reduce degradation of the engine that would otherwise occur.

Abstract: A piston engine has a crank assembly, a piston assembly, a crank case assembly and a cylinder head assembly. The crank assembly has a central axle, two counterweight blocks and a crank axle. The central axle has two connecting segments and two flanges. The flanges are respectively coaxial and eccentric mounted with the connecting segments and each flange has an eccentricity h relative to a corresponding connecting segment. Accordingly, the eccentricity h can make the crank case assembly and the cylinder head assembly vibrate. The vibration directions of the cylinder head assembly and the crank case assembly opposite to the vibration directions of the piston assembly and the crank assembly. Then, the shaking and the vibration of the piston engine can be effectively reducing.