Abstract: A method for analyzing the structure of an insoluble pigment compound is disclosed. In some embodiments, a method comprise determining a molecular weight of the pigment compound, the insoluble pigment compound by ultrasonic treatment in a solvent to form partial structural compounds, analyzing the elemental composition and the structure of partial structural compounds by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance, respectively and determining the structure of the insoluble pigment compound from the analysis of the partial structural compounds and the molecular weight of the insoluble pigment compound.

Abstract: According to one embodiment, a product includes a composite film comprising a polymer layer directly adjacent a graphene layer. According to another embodiment, a process includes layering a graphene layer onto a polymer layer to form a composite film.

Abstract: A molecular manipulation system for investigating molecules, having a sample holder constructed to hold a sample comprising a plurality of molecules attached on one side to a surface in the sample holder and on another side attached to a microbead of a plurality of microbeads. The system having; an acoustic wave generator to generate an acoustic wave exerting a force on the microbeads in the sample; and a detector device to detect a response of the plurality of microbeads in the sample on the force exerted by the acoustic wave to investigate the molecules attached to the microbeads.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to a system and method for synthesis of condensed, nano-carbon materials to create nanoparticles. In one embodiment the system may have a source of liquid precursor, a flow control element and a shock wave generating subsystem. The flow control element is in communication with the source of the liquid precursor and creates a jet of liquid precursor. The shock wave generating subsystem drives a shock wave through at least a substantial portion of a thickness of the jet of liquid precursor to sufficiently compress the jet of liquid precursor, and to increase a pressure and a temperature of the jet of liquid precursor, to create solid state nanoparticles.

Abstract: An optically transparent and electrically conductive film composed of metal nanowires or carbon nanotubes combined with pristine graphene with a metal nanowire-to-graphene or carbon nanotube-to-graphene weight ratio from 1/99 to 99/1, wherein the pristine graphene is single-crystalline and contains no oxygen and no hydrogen, and the film exhibits an optical transparence no less than 80% and sheet resistance no higher than 300 ohm/square. This film can be used as a transparent conductive electrode in an electro-optic device, such as a photovoltaic or solar cell, light-emitting diode, photo-detector, touch screen, electro-wetting display, liquid crystal display, plasma display, LED display, a TV screen, a computer screen, or a mobile phone screen.

Abstract: An ultrasonic mixing reactor configured for mixing of plant nutrients for greater absorption using cavitation. The reactor includes a venturi nozzle fluidly connected to a nozzle device having at least one annular shaped plate comprised of a plurality of apertures constructed and arranged to create cavitation. The nozzle device is fluidly coupled to a first ultrasonic reactor having a plurality of variable frequency ultrasonic transducers mounted within the first ultrasonic reactor for generating acoustic cavitation of the bulk mixed plant nutrients. The first ultrasonic transducer is fluidly connected to a second ultrasonic reactor having a plurality of variable frequency ultrasonic transducers mounted within the second ultrasonic reactor for generating acoustic cavitation of the bulk mixed plant nutrients. The second ultrasonic reactor discharge is fluidly coupled to a plate static mixer constructed and arranged to create hydrodynamic mixing.

Abstract: A system for and method of cleaving a bond between a first atom and a second atom in a molecule of a material are presented. One embodiment of the technique includes selecting a first electromagnetic radiation frequency, the first electromagnetic radiation frequency including a product of a golden mean and a base frequency associated with at least one of the first atom and the second atom. Such an embodiment further includes directing a first electromagnetic radiation at the material, where the first electromagnetic radiation has a frequency equal to the first electromagnetic radiation frequency, and where the first electromagnetic radiation frequency is sufficient to cleave the bond between the first atom and the second atom.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a method of producing a graphene from a graphite material. The method comprises the step of dispersing the graphite material in a solution, followed by shearing and exfoliating the graphite material produce a graphene-containing solution. The present method does not involve the use of chemical reagent and/or sonication treatment.

Abstract: A composition and a method are provided for graphene reinforced polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Graphene nanoplatelets comprising a suitable initial surface area are added to a solvent for producing PET. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises ethylene glycol. The solvent and graphene nanoplatelets are sonicated to disperse the nanoplatelets within the solvent. The solvent and graphene nanoplatelets are centrifuged to remove nanoplatelet agglomerates within the solvent. A supernatant solution of dispersed graphene nanoplatelets and solvent is decanted and then used for in-situ polymerization of the graphene reinforced PET comprising a continuous matrix of PET with a dispersed graphene reinforcement phase. The graphene reinforcements comprise a minimal number of layers of two-dimensional mono-atomic carbon sheets. In some embodiments, the number of layers ranges between 1 layer and 7 layers.

Abstract: This optical fiber scanner has an elongated optical fiber, a vibration transmission member which has a column-like shape and has a penetrating hole through which the optical fiber penetrates, and a piezoelectric element provided on an outer surface of the vibration transmission member, wherein the penetrating hole is a fitted hole which is formed from a proximal end of the vibration transmission member to a middle of the vibration transmission member and the optical fiber is fitted, and the penetrating hole is an accommodation hole which is formed from the middle to a distal end of the vibration transmission member, which has a large inner diameter than an outer diameter of the optical fiber, and which accommodates a distal end portion of the optical fiber with a gap between the optical fiber and the accommodation hole.

Abstract: The present invention relates to composites comprising rigid-rod polymers and graphene nanoparticles, processes for the preparation thereof, nanocomposite films and fibers comprising such composites and articles containing such nanocomposite films and fibers.

Abstract: A rare earth adsorbent of an embodiment has a chelidonic acid monoamide group as a ligand, and contains a functional group represented by the following general formula (1): wherein: X is selected from hydrogen or an alkali metal; R1 is a bonding group with a simple polymer; and R2 is a functional group selected from hydrogen, an alkyl group, an alkenyl group, an alkynyl group, and an aryl group, and may be substituted by nitrogen or oxygen or contain a functional group containing the atoms in a side chain.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for preparing graphene from a biomass-derived carbonaceous mesophase, which includes: soaking a base substance into an ethanol solution of a biomass-derived carbonaceous mesophase; after a certain period of time, taking out and drying the base substance, a layer of biomass-derived carbonaceous mesophase film being attached to the surface of the base substance; subjecting the base substance to a heat treatment under the protection of a hydrogen atmosphere, then a stacked graphene film was formed on the surface of the base substance; and further subjecting the base substance to ultrasonic dispersion in an alcohol solvent to separate the graphene film and the base substance, then a graphene alcohol was formed. The preparation process of the present invention is easy to implement. The raw material biomass-derived carbonaceous mesophase has abundant sources and is low in cost. The preparation process has low energy consumption, and is applicable to mass production.

Abstract: A preparing method of a reduced graphene oxide film, a reduced graphene oxide film prepared by the preparing method, a graphene electrode including the reduced graphene oxide film, an organic thin film transistor including the graphene electrode, and an antistatic film including the reduced graphene oxide film are provided. The method for preparing a reduced graphene oxide film comprises: coating a graphene oxide-dispersed solution on a substrate to form a graphene oxide thin film; and reducing the graphene oxide thin film using a chemical reduction method and a pressure-assisted thermal reduction method to form a reduced graphene oxide film.

Abstract: A coupled electrochemical system for its use is disclosed, where a polyol feed, especially a biomass polyol containing feed is reduced in a reducing solution including HI and a metal ion capable of converting I2 to HI during polyol reduction to hydrocarbon or iodohydrocarbon products and where the metal ions are capable of electrochemical reduction so that the system can be run on a batch, semi-continuous or continuous basis. The system is capable of producing hydrocarbon solvent, fuels and lubricating oils.

Abstract: An industrial microwave ultrasonic reactor has an inner wall liner. A microwave generation device is formed by microwave units distributed on an outer sidewall, or by a microwave pipe disposed outside the reactor and microwave units distributed on the microwave pipe. One end of the microwave pipe communicates with the bottom of the reactor via a connection pipe I, and the other end communicates with the top via a return pipe. A shield is disposed outside the microwave generation device to separate the microwave units from the outside, and a heat removal device is disposed outside the shield. An ultrasonic wave generation device is formed by 10 to 30 sets of ultrasonic pulse units disposed at intervals along the outer sidewall. Each set has 10 to 50 members distributed along the circumferential direction of the reactor. A stirring shaft is fixed below a stirring motor and extends into the reactor.

Abstract: A method for generating a hydrogen plasma field include a step for preparing ionized hydrogen water in which hydrogenated hydrogen with ion binding properties or ortho hydrogen molecules have been dissolved. The method also includes a step for irradiating the resulting solution with vacuum ultraviolet light. The vacuum ultraviolet light preferably includes waves with a wavelength of 193 nm. Applying this method for generating a hydrogen plasma field to an oil emulsification step enables an emulsified oil to be better refined and converted to atomized particles through exposure to sunlight.

Abstract: A method and devices comprise a low frequency high energy ultrasound system having at least one sonotrode projecting into a reactor vessel through which the liquid passes via at least one inlet orifice and at least one outlet orifice. To avoid cavitation at the sonotrode, in a close region of the oscillation-transducing sonotrode surface a pressure/amplitude combination close to or above the pressure-amplitude characteristic line is generated at which considerably reduced or no cavitation occurs and in the adjacent region in the vessel at least in a region and at least at times a pressure/amplitude combination is maintained below the pressure-amplitude characteristic line at which cavitation is generated. A device has an inlet orifice arranged such that the liquid impacts directly onto the oscillation-transducing sonotrode surface, and is shaped that in the close region of the oscillation-transducing sonotrode surface a pressure close to or above the pressure-amplitude characteristic line prevails.

Abstract: Provided in this invention is a process for producing chemically functionalized nano graphene materials, known as nano graphene platelets (NGPs), graphene nano sheets, or graphene nano ribbons. Subsequently, a polymer can be grafted to a functional group of the resulting functionalized graphene. In one preferred embodiment, the process comprises a step of mixing a starting nano graphene material having edges and two primary graphene surfaces, an azide or bi-radical compound, and an organic solvent in a reactor, and allowing a chemical reaction between the nano graphene material and the azide compound to proceed at a temperature for a length of time sufficient to produce the functionalized nano graphene material.

Abstract: A combined production-functionalization process for producing a chemically functionalized nano graphene material from a pre-intercalated, oxidized, or halogenated graphite material, comprising: (A) Producing exfoliated graphite from the pre-intercalated, oxidized, or halogenated graphite material, wherein the graphite material is selected from the group consisting of natural graphite, artificial graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, carbon fiber, graphite fiber, carbon nano-fiber, graphitic nano-fiber, meso-carbon micro-bead, graphitized coke, and combinations thereof; (B) Dispersing the exfoliated graphite and an azide or bi-radical compound in a liquid medium to form a suspension; (C) Subjecting the suspension to ultrasonication with ultrasonic waves of a desired intensity for a length of time sufficient to produce nano graphene platelets and to enable a chemical reaction to occur between the nano graphene platelets and the azide or bi-radical compound to produce the functionalized nano graphene mat

Abstract: A method for generating hydrogen plasma includes a step for preparing a solution in which hydrogenated hydrogen with ion binding properties or ortho hydrogen molecules have been dissolved. The method also includes exposing the solution to ultrasonic waves or microwaves. Preferably, microbubbles are agitated by projecting ultrasonic waves or microwaves as solar energy, generating hydrogen plasma when the microbubbles burst.

Abstract: A surface cleaning apparatus includes a housing with an on-board reactive oxygen species generator which produces reactive oxygen species in situ from fluid stored within an on-board supply tank of the surface cleaning apparatus, and further delivers the generated reactive oxygen species to a cleaning pad attached to the housing of the surface cleaning apparatus.

Abstract: The present teachings describe a process for converting a HOGaPc Type I polymorph to the HOGaPc Type V polymorph. The process includes obtaining a slurry comprising hydroxy gallium phthalocyanine (HOGaPc) Type I polymorph. The slurry is mixed at a resonant frequency of the slurry by applying a low frequency acoustic field for a time sufficient to convert the HOGaPc Type I polymorph to the HOGaPc Type V polymorph.

Abstract: A process for producing particle-reinforced composite materials through utilization of an in situ reaction to produce a uniform dispersion of a fine particulate reinforcement phase. The process includes forming a melt of a first material, and then introducing particles of a second material into the melt and subjecting the melt to high-intensity acoustic vibration. A chemical reaction initiates between the first and second materials to produce reaction products in the melt. The reaction products comprise a solid particulate phase, and the high-intensity acoustic vibration fragments and/or separates the reaction products into solid particles that are dispersed in the melt and are smaller than the particles of the second material. Also encompassed are particle-reinforced composite materials produced by such a process.

Abstract: The present teachings describe a process for converting a HOGaPc Type I polymorph to the HOGaPc Type V polymorph. The process includes obtaining a slurry comprising hydroxy gallium phthalocyanine (HOGaPc) Type I polymorph. The slurry is mixed at a resonant frequency of the slurry by applying a low frequency acoustic field for a time sufficient to convert the HOGaPc Type I polymorph to the HOGaPc Type V polymorph.

Abstract: An in-line cleaning and sanitation apparatus for cleaning a liquid, the apparatus including electronic oxidation means to increase the oxidation reduction potential of the liquid, and ionization means to produce ions having an algaecidal or bactericidal effect into the liquid, in that order together with ultrasonic cleaning means to introduce sound waves into the liquid, and wherein the ionization means, the ultrasonic cleaning means and the electronic oxidation means are operated simultaneously for a period to clean and sanitize the liquid in the absence of added salt, chlorine or other chemicals.

Abstract: Hybrid particles that comprise a coating surrounding a chalcopyrite material, the coating comprising a metal, a semiconductive material, or a polymer; a core comprising a chalcopyrite material and a shell comprising a functionalized chalcopyrite material, the shell enveloping the core; or a reaction product of a chalcopyrite material and at least one of a reagent, heat, and radiation. Methods of forming the hybrid particles are also disclosed.

Abstract: Methods of manufacturing metal oxide nanoparticles are provided. The method uses a bubble generation ultrasonic synthesis method. A gas is injected into a metal oxide preliminary composition solution to promote length growth of nanoparticles. After a basic chemical species solution is mixed with the metal oxide preliminary composition solution, ultrasonic waves are applied to form a reactant. The reactant is refined to manufacture metal oxide nanoparticles. The nanoparticles may have excellent dispersibility and a uniform thin film may be formed by the nanoparticles.

Abstract: Methods of forming graphene by graphite exfoliation, wherein the methods include: providing a graphite sample having atomic layers of carbon; introducing a salt and a solvent into the space between the atomic layers; expanding the space between the atomic layers using organic molecules and ions from the solvent and the salt; and separating the atomic layers using a driving force to form one or more sheets of graphene; the graphene produced by the methods can be used to form solar cells, to perform DNA analysis, and for other electrical, optical and biological applications.

Abstract: Provided in this invention is a process for producing chemically functionalized nano graphene materials, known as nano graphene platelets (NGPs), graphene nano sheets, or graphene nano ribbons. Subsequently, a polymer can be grafted to a functional group of the resulting functionalized graphene. In one preferred embodiment, the process comprises a step of mixing a starting nano graphene material having edges and two primary graphene surfaces, an azide or bi-radical compound, and an organic solvent in a reactor, and allowing a chemical reaction between the nano graphene material and the azide compound to proceed at a temperature for a length of time sufficient to produce the functionalized nano graphene material.

Abstract: A combined production-functionalization process for producing a chemically functionalized nano graphene material from a pre-intercalated, oxidized, or halogenated graphite material, comprising: (A) Producing exfoliated graphite from the pre-intercalated, oxidized, or halogenated graphite material, wherein the graphite material is selected from the group consisting of natural graphite, artificial graphite, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, carbon fiber, graphite fiber, carbon nano-fiber, graphitic nano-fiber, meso-carbon micro-bead, graphitized coke, and combinations thereof; (B) Dispersing the exfoliated graphite and an azide or bi-radical compound in a liquid medium to form a suspension; (C) Subjecting the suspension to ultrasonication with ultrasonic waves of a desired intensity for a length of time sufficient to produce nano graphene platelets and to enable a chemical reaction to occur between the nano graphene platelets and the azide or bi-radical compound to produce the functionalized nano graphene mat

Abstract: Provided herein are aqueous sonolysis methods involving mixing a precursor transition metal salt, with a Pd-water slurry and sonicating the resulting reaction mixture to synthesize the palladium-based transition metal oxides. Also provided herein are palladium-based transition metal oxides.

Abstract: A method comprises: physically attaching one or more of metals, metal compounds or oxides to walls of carbon nanotubes; treating the metals, metal compounds or oxides to bond the metals, metal compounds, or oxides chemically to the carbon nanotubes; removing the metals, metal compounds or oxides from the walls of the carbon nanotubes resulting in defected carbon nanotubes; and unzipping the defected carbon nanotubes into graphene sheets or ribbons.

Abstract: A process for the production of biocides possessing fungicidal and bactericidal properties is described wherein bentonite is activated with ions of sodium and the obtained intermediate product is intercalated by ions of metals of bactericidal action such as Ag+, Cu2+, Zn2+ by reaction in water solutions of inorganic salts of these metals, under the action of ultrasounds having a frequency of 20-50 Khz and intensity of 10-100 WT/cm2.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method for generating motion in a thin liquid film on a substrate, in particular in a capillary gap, in which at least one ultrasound wave is sent right through the substrate in the direction of the liquid film, and a device for carrying out the inventive method.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for preparing graphene, and more particularly to a method of preparing graphene sheets, which can prepare graphene sheets from a turbostratic graphitic structure such as carbon fiber in higher yield without using a strong oxidizing agent, and to graphene sheets prepared thereby.

Abstract: Provided in this invention is a process for producing chemically functionalized nano graphene materials, known as nano graphene platelets (NGPs), graphene nano sheets, or graphene nano ribbons. Subsequently, a polymer can be grafted to a functional group of the resulting functionalized NGPs. In one preferred embodiment, the process comprises (A) dispersing a pristine graphite material and an azide or bi-radical compound in a liquid medium comprising to form a suspension; and (B) subjecting the suspension to direct ultrasonication with to ultrasonic waves of a desired intensity or power level for a length of time sufficient to produce nano graphene platelets and to enable a chemical reaction to occur between the nano graphene platelets and the azide or bi-radical compound to produce the functionalized nano graphene material. Concurrent production and functionalization of NGPs directly from pristine graphitic materials can be achieved in one step and in the same reactor.

Abstract: A component separating device includes a flow channel, an acoustic wave generator for generating an acoustic wave in the flow channel, a first inlet channel for introducing a fist solution containing solid particles into the flow channel, a second inlet channel for introducing a second solution, and outlet channels for discharging a solution from the flow channel. A density grade generator is provided at the first inlet channel for forming a density grade of the solid particles. This component separating device extracts the solid particles into a high-purity solution at a high collecting rate.

Abstract: Technologies are generally described for forming graphene and structures including graphene. In an example, a system effective to form graphene may include a source of carbon atoms and a reaction chamber configured in communication with the source of carbon atoms. The reaction chamber may include a first and second layer of a host material. The host material may include a crystalline compound with a layer structure with a layer spacing in a range from about 1.5 ? to about 33 ?. The reaction chamber may be adapted effective to move at least six carbon atoms from the source into the reaction chamber. The reaction chamber may be configured effective to move the at least six carbon atoms in between the first and the second layer. The reaction chamber may be adapted effective to react the carbon atoms under reaction conditions sufficient to form the graphene.

Abstract: The present invention provides a method of producing pristine or non-oxidized nano graphene platelets (NGPs) that are highly conductive. The method comprises: (a) providing a pristine graphitic material comprising at least a graphite crystallite having at least a graphene plane and an edge surface; (b) dispersing multiple particles of the pristine graphitic material in a liquid medium containing therein no surfactant to produce a suspension, wherein the multiple particles in the liquid have a concentration greater than 0.1 mg/mL and the liquid medium is characterized by having a surface tension that enables wetting of the liquid on a graphene plane exhibiting a contact angle less than 90 degrees; and (c) exposing the suspension to direct ultrasonication at a sufficient energy or intensity level for a sufficient length of time to produce the NGPs. Pristine NGPs can be used as a conductive additive in transparent electrodes for solar cells or flat panel displays (e.g.

Abstract: A method of synthesizing ligand-conjugated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) is disclosed. The method comprises: a) providing an amine-modified silica particle; b) providing a solution comprising Au+3 ions; c) suspending the amine-modified silica particle in the solution comprising Au+3 ions; d) allowing the Au3+ ions to be adsorbed and/or immobilized onto the surface of the amine-modified silica particle; e) exposing the Au3+ ions immobilized onto the surface of the amine-modified silica particle to radiation to obtain bare gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) adsorbed and/or immobilized onto the surface of the amine-modified silica particle, wherein the bare AuNPs are without organic surface modifications; and f) reacting a ligand with the bare AuNPs adsorbed and/or immobilized onto the surface of the amine-modified SiNP and thereby obtain ligand-conjugated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs).

Abstract: A method for treating a liquid using an apparatus includes: (a) a pump volute or hydrocyclone head having an inlet and an outlet, (b) a throat having a first opening, a second opening and a central axis, wherein the first opening is connected to the outlet of the pump volute or hydrocyclone head, (c) a tank connected to the second opening of the throat, and (d) a wave energy source having a first electrode within the pump volute or hydrocyclone head that extends through the outlet into the first opening of the throat along the central axis of the throat, and a second electrode within the tank that is spaced apart and axially aligned with first electrode. The method includes the steps of providing the above-described apparatus, supplying the liquid to the inlet of the pump volute or hydrocyclone head, and irradiating the liquid with one or more wave energies produced by the wave energy source.

Abstract: Hydrogen storage materials and methods of reversibly storing and generating hydrogen using sonication and hydrocarbon nanostructures are described.

Abstract: A gas sensor element includes a solid electrolyte body having oxygen ion conductivity and electrode layers formed on both surfaces of the solid electrolyte body configuring a pair of electrodes. The gas sensor element detects concentration of a selected component included in a measured gas. In the gas sensor element, closed pores having an average pore diameter of 5 nm or more and 120 nm or less are dispersed in the electrode layers, porosity measured by cross-sectional observation of the electrode layers is 1% or more and 18% or less, and 90% or more of the closed pores is dispersed within metal grains forming the electrode layers.

Abstract: The invention relates generally to chemical reactions and processes, and in particular to a method for enhancing the rate of a chemical reaction and to apparatus for carrying out the method. The invention more particularly relates to methods and apparatus which utilize microwave and ultrasonic energy to enhance chemical reaction rates; and in specific instances, the invention relates to methods, processes and apparatus for the synthesis of biodiesel fuels. The methods, processes and apparatus of the invention are useful for the synthesis of biodiesel fuels; and also useful for production of reaction products of esterification and/or transesterification reactions including fatty acid alkyl esters.

Abstract: An ultrasound system is disclosed that includes a tub, a reaction chamber, an ultrasound probe positioned within the reaction chamber, and a cooling jacket surrounding the tub for exchanging heat with the tub.

Abstract: This system and method for producing nanomaterials allows for the production of relatively high concentrations of nanoparticles with a minimum of expense, time and energy. Ultrasonic waves, produced at a power of approximately 50 W with a frequency of 26.23 kHz, are projected on a material sample while, simultaneously, a fluid stream jet is projected on the material sample. The ultrasonic waves, in the presence of the fluid jet, create cavities that explode at the surface of the solid material, leading to creation of cracks in the material surface. With the increase in the number of cracks in the material, the solid material erodes. The eroded material, which is on the nanometer scale, is collected on a suitable substrate, such as silicon. This method allows for the preparation of nanoparticles from any solid material, in particular very hard materials, such as diamond, silicon carbide and the like.

Abstract: A process has been developed to selectively dissociate target molecules into component products compositionally distinct from the target molecule, wherein the bonds of the target molecule do not reform because the components are no longer reactive with each other. Dissociation is affected by treating the target molecule with light at a frequency and intensity, alone or in combination with a catalyst in an amount effective to selectively break bonds within the target molecule. Dissociation does not result in re-association into the target molecule by the reverse process, and does not produce component products which have a change in oxidation number or state incorporated oxygen or other additives because the process does not proceed via a typical reduction-oxidation mechanism. Target molecules include ammonia for waste reclamation and treatment, PCB remediation, and targeted drug delivery.

Abstract: Methods of making nanoparticles are disclosed. The nanoparticles include carbon nanotubes and fullerenes, but the methods can be extended to produce other nanotubes, nanocrystals, proteins, nanospheres, etc. The disclosed methods generate cavitation in fluids to create the necessary conditions for nanoparticle formation. Disclosed methods for generating cavitation include explosions and oscillation of fluids.

Abstract: An ultrasound system is disclosed that includes a tub, a reaction chamber, an ultrasound probe positioned within the reaction chamber, and a cooling jacket surrounding the tub for exchanging heat with the tub.