Abstract: A method and apparatus for measuring electrochemiluminescence from a sample composition are described wherein magnetically responsive electrochemiluminescent active species are captured on the electrode with the aid of a capture magnet having a configuration such that the magnetic flux lines (or the magnetic field gradient) of at least one magnetic field source therein are compressed and/or dispersed. This capture magnet improves the distribution of the magnetically responsive electrochemiluminescent active species on the electrode surface and reduces interference with the photomultiplier tube, thereby enhancing the ECL signal and improving sensitivity. The improved capture and distribution also allows for shorter assay times.

Abstract: This invention provides a measuring apparatus that allows measurements of light in various inspections based on different light generating principles to be performed by a single measuring apparatus and thus widens the range of reagents that can be used, increasing the versatility of this single measuring apparatus and significantly enhancing its usefulness for users and reagent manufacturers. The measuring apparatus of this invention comprises: a light receiving unit and/or a light receiving unit holder connected to a light measuring device; a nozzle holder holding a nozzle for injecting reagents including luminescent reagents into a container; and a container containing a specimen and/or a container holder; wherein the container or container holder and the light receiving unit or light receiving unit holder, and/or the nozzle holder are coupled together to form an enclosed space shielded from external light.

Abstract: An apparatus and method employing a plurality of light emitting devices which each can get light through a respective optical fiber toward a respective fluid sample of a plurality of fluid samples in a time-staggered manner. Light is generated in each of the fluid samples at different times consistent with the times at which light is irradiate onto the sample. A single detector is used to detect the lights emitted from the plurality of samples at these different times. A plurality of bifurcated optical cable are coupled to the light emitting devices and single light detecting device, and the integrated end of each bifurcated cable acts as the light emitting port and light detecting port.

Abstract: The invention concerns a measuring device for carrying out of chemiluminescence and/or fluorescence measurements of fluid samples, which in sample containers (22) of a sample plate (24) are contained. For analysis of a measurement light exiting from an upper measurement opening (26) of a sample container (22) found in a measurement position, a photo-multiplier (12) is provided, which for achievement of a flat device construction is provided lying down. In order that the measurement light is redirected into the entry window (36) of the photo-multiplier (12) there is provided a reflector (16) before the photomultiplier (12) in the carrier body (14) which covers over at least the measurement opening (26) of the sample container (22) to be measured, at a distance (FIG. 1).

Abstract: There is disclosed a diagnostic sensor device comprising a plurality of sensor probes, a detection device, and a computer for analyzing the signals generated from each sensor probe by multivariate statistical analysis. The plurality of sensor probes comprise a substrate that allows transmission of a signal and a partially selective surface coating the substrate wherein the partially selective surface binds proteins from a biological fluid by multiple, noncovalent interactions, and with the proviso that the partially selective surfaces of each sensor probe in the diagnostic sensor device be different. The diagnostic sensor device can be used as a method for diagnosing disease states in humans and animals, wherein the disease states are characterized by altered protein character and behavior of a biological fluid.

Abstract: A method for assay of an analyte by use of a material labeled with a chemiluminescent substance, which comprises adding a quencher and/or decreasing the specific activity of a chemiluminescent substance labeled probe, thereby decreasing the quantity of chemiluminescence.

Abstract: The invention is a method for conducting an electrochemiluminescent assay that includes contacting a sample containing an analyte of interest with a first electrical waveform, followed by contacting the sample with a second electrical waveform that has been modulated in an amount derived from a pre-determined gain extension factor.

Abstract: In a device for determining the ozone concentration by utilizing the surface chemiluminescence effect having a fan (13), a chemiluminescence element (8), a photomultiplier (6), a temperature sensor (16), and control electronics (12), an airflow generated by a fan (13) passes via a suction pipe (7) and an adjoining light trap system (17) through a venturi-shaped channel structure (2) along a metal block (9) in which a temperature sensor (16) is housed. The device is calibrated with respect to the temperature dependence of the reaction of a chemiluminescence disc (8) attached to the bottom of the metal block by determining the output voltage of a photomultiplier (6) in dependence on the temperature at a predetermined ozone concentration in the measured air.

Abstract: The invention concerns a measuring device for carrying out of luminescence measurements of fluid samples, with a light detector (10) which detects the light entering an aperture opening (36) of a inlet aperture (18) and a positioning device for positioning one of a multiplicity of sample vessels (20) arranged on a micro-test plate (16 with respect to the aperture opening (36). In order to prevent the spill-over of light between the individual sample vessels (20), a transverse shield (42) is provided capable of being brought into engagement with the sample plate, which in the engagement position separates the measurement opening (24) of the sample vessel (20') found in the measurement position from the measurement openings of the adjacent sample vessels (20).

Abstract: A method for allowing authentification of a bulk liquid e.g. petrol or another mineral oil based product, comprises introducing into the liquid a small amount of a chemiluminescent substance. Samples for authentification are subjected to the conditions required to trigger the chemiluminescent reaction and monitored for chemiluminescent emission.

Abstract: A luminometer for determining the composition of a specimen sample includes an annular guide path for sample containing cuvettes within a light tight housing. A rotor moves spaced segments through the guide path with the cuvettes positioned between the segments. The luminometer further includes one or two detector assemblies coupled to the housing and positioned to view and detect light emitted by cuvettes as they pass along the guide path between segments. A cuvette is advanced around the housing via the rotor and rotor segments and when the cuvette reaches a predetermined position on the housing, a reagent, such as a base, is added to the cuvette to initiate a chemiluminescent reaction within the cuvette and provide an emission of light energy in a predetermined spectral range. The luminometer has a waste aspiration probe to remove the contents of the cuvette after it passes the detector.

Abstract: The presently disclosed invention is drawn to an automatic luminometer apparatus capable of measuring two distinct luminescent reactions from within a single, non-compartmentalized sample container. The present apparatus may be dimensioned, configured, and programmed to automatically perform dual-reporter luminescent assays using multi-well sample plates, such as 96-well microtiter plates.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for measuring electrochemiluminescence from a sample composition are described wherein magnetically responsive electrochemiluminescent active species are captured on the electrode with the aid of a capture magnet having a configuration such that the magnetic flux lines (or the magnetic field gradient) of at least one magnetic field source therein are compressed and/or dispersed. This capture magnet improves the distribution of the magnetically responsive electrochemiluminescent active species on the electrode surface and reduces interference with the photomultiplier tube, thereby enhancing the ECL signal and improving sensitivity. The improved capture and distribution also allows for shorter assay times.

Abstract: An apparatus as provided for use in carrying out electrochemiluminescence test measurements. The apparatus includes a fluid container having an inlet for introducing an electrochemiluminescence sample fluid and a fluid outlet. The fluid container is composed of a durable, transparent, chemically inert, and electrically nonconductive material. A working electrode is disposed to one side of a fluid flow path of the container which has a light transmissive wall opposite the working electrode. A counter electrode is secured to the light transmissive wall. A first portion of the counter electrode is disposed upstream of the working electrode, while a second portion of the counter electrode is disposed downstream of the working electrode.

Abstract: The apparatus for detecting chemiluminescent light is a component of a luminometer that can be incorporated in a sample analysis system. Such apparatus, also referred to as a fiber optic read-head, includes a fiber optic cable having a light-transmission end that connects to a photon counter of the luminometer. An opposite end portion of the fiber optic cable is divided into a plurality of fiber optic ribbons. Each of the fiber optic ribbons has a light-receiving end. The ribbons are radially arranged such that the light-receiving ends define a cylindrical passageway for accommodation of a sample analysis tube or cuvette. The fiber optic ribbons are maintained in their desired position by a core. The core is housed in an opaque housing that prevents light from coming in or straying out.

Abstract: A luminometer for determining the composition of a specimen sample includes an annular guide path for sample containing cuvettes within a light tight housing. A rotor moves spaced segments through the guide path with the cuvettes positioned between the segments. The luminometer further includes one or two detector assemblies coupled to the housing and positioned to view and detect light emitted by cuvettes as they pass along the guide path between segments. A cuvette is advanced around the housing via the rotor and rotor segments and when the cuvette reaches a predetermined position on the housing, a reagent, such as a base, is added to the cuvette to initiate a chemiluminescent reaction within the cuvette and provide an emission of light energy in a predetermined spectral range. The luminometer has a waste aspiration probe to remove the contents of the cuvette after it passes the detector.

Abstract: A light-emission measuring apparatus which is capable of eliminating various secondary problems in addition to shutting off strong light from the external and preventing crosstalk. The light-emission measuring apparatus is equipped with a box-type carrier 9 having an open top surface and made to accommodate a microplate 7 comprising a plurality of wells. The box-type carrier is disposed to be movable horizontally. A light-obstruction plate having a light-receiving hole 11 is disposed above the box-type carrier to be movable vertically. The light-obstruction plate 5 is brought into tight contact with a circumference of the box-type carrier 9 to establish a black box when being moved downwardly. Further, the light-receiving hole 11 of the light-obstruction plate 5 has a cylindrical projecting bottom surface 12 so that its bottom surface side outer circumference comes into tight contact with a circumference 13 of an opening of a well top surface of the microplate 7.

Abstract: Method for measuring electrochemiluminescent phenomena using certain detergents and, if necessary, alkali chlorides and reagents suitable for this purpose.

Abstract: Sonoluminescence is an off-equilibrium phenomenon in which the energy of a resonant sound wave in a liquid is highly concentrated so as to generate flashes of light. The conversion of sound to light represents an energy amplification of eleven orders of magnitude. The flashes which occur once per cycle of the audible or ultrasonic sound fields can be comprised of over one million photons and last for less 100 picoseconds. The emission displays a clocklike synchronicity; the jitter in time between consecutive flashes is less than fifty picoseconds. The emission is blue to the eye and has a broadband spectrum increasing from 700 nanometers to 200 nanometers. The peak power is about 100 milliWatts. The initial stage of the energy focusing is effected by the nonlinear oscillations of a gas bubble trapped in the liquid. For sufficiently high drive pressures an imploding shock wave is launched into the gas by the collapsing bubble.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for measuring the temperature profile of a surface exhibiting spatial and/or temporal variations in temperature, e.g., the surface of a machine or a biological system, is disclosed. The inventive method involves forming a layer of chemiluminescent material in thermal contact with the surface. The chemiluminescent activity is selected to be a function of temperature by suitable dye choices. The resulting luminescence is detected.

Abstract: The present invention provides a chemiluminescence measuring apparatus which is small in size and high in operability and has a function of performing accurate quantitative analysis and the like. The apparatus includes at least a box-like housing having an opening, a cover provided on a top surface of the housing and having a through hole for introducing a first detachable vessel into the inner space of the housing, a holder having a concave portion and enclosing the opening of the housing, the hollow chamber having an opening at a side wall thereof and partially housing a second vessel, a photo-sensing unit for detecting luminescence from the second vessel via the through hole of the hollow chamber, and a shutter mechanism for intermittently cutting optical path between the photo-sensing unit and the second vessel.

Abstract: An improved luminometer is provided which uses a top loading plate carrier which receives a microtitration plate and uses a mask having an aperture corresponding to each test cell in the plate carrier. When the mask rotates downwardly to cover the microtitration plate, the plate carrier automatically orients the microtitration plate in the X, Y and Z directions. Reagents are added to the individual test cells through the mask aperture. Each reagent injector is extendable and retractable so that liquids can be added below the mask aperture during purging or washing and then the injector retracted. A pump is provided for each injector which is driven by a stepper motor and a rack and pinion connection to a syringe.

Abstract: This invention relates to a new electrochemiluminescent (ECL) label for oligonucleotides using phosphoramidite chemistry.

Abstract: An apparatus for conducting measurements of electrochemiluminescence including a movable sample container support in the form of a carousel having a plurality of spaced apart support positions, an electrochemiluminescence testing device, a motor system to move the sample container support in a predetermined sequence, a sample transfer device to transfer sample from containers in the support positions to the testing device, and a detection system to detect the presence of a sample container and to produce an actuation signal based on the detected presence of the sample container.

Abstract: The invention addresses a measuring cell and a process for carrying out electrochemiluminescence measurements (ECL). The measuring cell has a sample space in which there are disposed a working and a counter electrode. The counter electrode is disposed such that it is located in the light path between the working electrode and the optical detector.

Abstract: An apparatus as provided for use in carrying out electrochemiluminescence test measurements. The apparatus includes a cell to contain an electrochemiluminescence sample fluid. A working electrode is provided within the cell and is coupled to a supply of electrical energy to apply the same to the sample fluid. A temperature effect adjustment system serves either to adjust a temperature of the electrochemiluminescent sample fluid so that it is within a predetermined range, or else adjusts an output signal representing light produced through electrochemiluminescence of the sample fluid based on the temperature of the sample fluid.

Abstract: A chemiluminescent detector having a first reflective layer; a second transparent layer; the first reflective layer having cut therein a first sample flow path; an exhaust flow path and a reagent flow path, said sample reagent and exhaust flow paths having at least one capillary channel joining the sample and reagent conduits such that the sample and reagent conduits can mix in the exhaust conduits at a plurality of discrete points and create a plurality of chemiluminescent reactions.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for determining a plurality of substances or constituents of a specimen sample includes the steps of placing a single specimen sample in a reaction vessel or test tube and adding at least two reagents to the reaction vessel to form a detectable product and then initiating a reaction within the vessel and provide an emission of light energy in a predetermined spectral range. The reaction vessel is disposed in a chamber of a housing and a plurality of detector assemblies are disposed about the housing with portions of the detector assemblies disposed through the housing and exposed to the reaction vessel. Each of the detector assemblies receives a portion of the light emission and feeds such portion to a detector.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a chemical luminescence-detecting apparatus that is provided with a plurality of optical detectors different in sensitivity in the vicinity of a photometric cell. A ratio of outputs from the optical detectors based on intensity of luminescence is previously determined and stored. Signal processing can multiply an output of a low sensitivity optical detector by a factor determined by the stored ratio to measure the intensity of luminescence so that a conversion value corresponding to an equivalent output from a high sensitivity optical detector may be obtained when the output from the high sensitivity optical detector has become saturated.

Abstract: An electronic device for measuring extremely faint light emissions comprises a photomultiplier tube surrounded by a sleeve made of a material which is a good heat conductor, cooled to a low temperature and insulated from the outside, a thermally insulating and optically transparent lightguide body being stably glued to the photocathode of the photomultiplier tube to receive the light radiation emitted by a specimen to be examined, which is inserted in a cavity of a supporting structure holding a rotary body which can be turned in front of the lightguide body, so as to operate as a shutter for the lightguide in a first turned measurement position thereof to allow measurement of the dark signal and then allow, as the rotary body and the specimen held therein are turned to a second measurement position, to measure the light emission from the specimen.

Abstract: A diagnostic microbiological testing apparatus and method includes at least one test tray including a plurality of reaction chambers, a light source disposed proximate to the test tray for directing light, at an excitation wavelength of a fluorescence emitting agent contained within the reaction chambers, at the test tray, a filter for passing therethrough only light generated by a fluorescence emitting reaction resulting from the interaction of the fluorescence emitting agent and a sample, and an imaging mechanism for detecting only the light generated by the fluorescence emitting reaction at the emission wavelength simultaneously from the plurality of reaction chambers.

Abstract: The concentration of at least one luminescence-affecting chemical species in at least one location in a sample capable of emitting luminescent radiation can be determined using multiple luminescent emission ratio photometry and multiple luminescent emission ratio imaging. An apparatus and method for conducting multiple luminescent emission ratio photometry and imaging is provided.

Abstract: A normalization system for multi-photodetector single photon counting luminescent measuring systems and a standard for use in the same. The method comprises calculating one or more counting ratios for each photodetector in the single photon counting system and multiplying counts of unknown samples by the inverse of the appropriate counting ratio. A counting ratio for a particular photodetector is calculated by dividing the count of a standard measured by the photodetector by the count of the same standard measured by a reference photodetector. The particular standard developed employs calcium tungstate:lead as a scintillator and tritium or carbon-14 thymidine as a means of exciting the scintillator. This standard has the advantages of providing a good model of typical luminescence chemistry and producing an emission pattern which is susceptible to single photon counting.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for triggering and measuring electrochemiluminescent phenomena using a voltage waveform applied at the voltammetric working electrode which improves the precision and accuracy of measurements. This waveform has a decreasing scan rate in the range of voltages for which electrochemiluminescence is triggered and is substantially sinusoidal in shape in this range. The waveform results from locating the reference electrode of a potentiostat in close potential proximity to its counter electrode, and applying a uniform scanning voltage waveform at the reference electrode. The waveform also can be synthesized digitally, converted to analog form, and applied directly to the working electrode with the reference electrode in close potential proximity to the working electrode.

Abstract: A radiation measuring apparatus for performing measurements on samples contained in a plurality of sample containers disposed in the form of a matrix on a holder plate, the apparatus including a radiation detector having an entrance window, displacement devices for aligning successive sample containers with the entrance window of the radiation detector for automatic measurement of samples in the sample containers, the radiation detector and the sample containers being movable relative to one another in such a way that the sample container being measured and the entrance window of the detector are disposed coaxially with each other.

Abstract: A chemiluminescent detector is formed on a single crystal silicon substrate. A reaction unit is formed on and integral with a substrate. The reaction unit is for mixing a test sample with a chemiluminescent reagent and is formed on the substrate by anisotropic etching. The reaction unit includes a plurality of through-holes interconnected with grooves formed in the substrate. A detection unit, including a silicon photodetector, is also formed on and integral with the substrate and detects chemiluminescent light generated by a chemiluminescent reaction between the test sample and the chemiluminescent reagent. Introducing ports introduce the test sample and the chemiluminescent reagent into the reaction unit. A pair of glass plates sandwich the substrate.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for triggering and measuring electrochemiluminescent phenomena using a voltage waveform applied at the voltammetric working electrode which improves the precision and accuracy of measurements. This waveform has a decreasing scan rate in the range of voltages for which electrochemiluminescence is triggered and is substantially sinusoidal in shape in this range. The waveform results from locating the reference electrode of a potentiostat in close potential proximity to its counter electrode, and applying a uniform scanning voltage waveform at the reference electrode. The waveform also can be synthesized digitally, converted to analog form, and applied directly to the working electrode with the reference electrode in close potential proximity to the working electrode.

Abstract: In a method for reducing the latent low-level phosphorescence of laboratory glassware, the glassware is illuminated by infrared light with a wavelength of about 780 nanometers. A suitable infrared light source can be a xenon flash apparatus fitted with an infrared light filter. A single flash from the xenon apparatus can substantially reduce the latent low-level phosphorescence of laboratory glassware to a baseline phosphorescence level.

Abstract: An instrument for quantitative analysis includes two shutters, one of which prevents light from being introduced into a black box housing a cell holder from the outside through a port in which a cell may be placed in and taken out the black box, and the other of which prevents light from impinging on a photomultiplier tube which is in communication with the black box. The shutters are controlled by a control unit so that one of the shutters opens when the other closes. The instrument also includes detectors which detect whether or not the cell holder and the cell are disposed at predetermined positions, respectively. The detectors output signals to the control unit. The control unit controls an automatic pipetting device to restrict a sample from being introduced into the cell when both the cell holder and the cell are not disposed at the predetermined position.

Abstract: Apparatus for performing and measuring chemical reactions includes a reaction test apparatus having reaction wells wherein reactants are controllably mixed, and exposure apparatus which receives and positions the reaction test apparatus adjacent a photographic film. Each of the reaction wells includes at least two reaction cups, arranged one above the other. The uppermost reaction cups have orifices in the bottoms, so that liquid can be mixed and reacted in the uppermost cup, and then controllably transferred to the lower cup to be mixed with additional reactants. In a preferred embodiment, the reaction cups are supported in plates that are structurally integrated with the cups, and are superimposed to make a test block. The test block is retained in the exposure apparatus, and liquid is forced from the upper cup to the lower cup by application of pressure to the top of the upper cup.

Abstract: A luminometer for analyzing genetic or non-genetic maaterial comprises an optical chamber for receiving and holding a vial of the sample material in a dark environment. A pumping system mounted in the luminometer pumps reagents into the vial to cause the sample material to luminesce, and a sensor is positioned in the dark environment relative to the vial to detect the luminescence. Instantaneous intensities of the luminescence are sequentially sampled at set intervals of time during a preselected time period and summed by a microprocessor to generate a signal that is descriptive of the constituents of the sample.

Abstract: Light photon detecting apparatus (10) comprises a photomultiplier tube (36) in a two-part housing (14), the underside (22) of which is open. The underside (22) is fitted with an elastomeric sealing ring (28) to make an airtight and hence light-tight seal with a surface (12). Two spring-loaded part (16, 18) of the housing (14) act as a pump to produce a partial vacuum which opens a shutter (60) to expose the photomultiplier tube (36).

Abstract: An apparatus for conducting two or more simultaneous measurements of electrochemiluminescent (ECL) phenomena includes a cell in which a sample including an ECL moiety may be induced to repeatedly emit light in response to electrochemical energy applied by, for example, a working voltammetric electrode. Two or more light detectors such as photomultiplier tubes receive the emitted light at respective wavelengths indicative of respective analytes of interest in the sample.

Abstract: An atomic resonance filter device. The device includes a bulbous shaped cell containing atomic vapor which converts narrow band received light into longer wavelength photons which are collected by an integrated sphere like housing and a spatial collecting cone to which passes the longer wavelength photons to a photodector. The housing has an inner reflective surface or coating which reflects received light and converted light frequencies. The housing opening is covered with a filter that passes the received light and blocks the spectrum of converted light. The inner surface of the filter is coated with a coating highly reflective to converted light. A light collecting cone with a cylindrical body portion is centrally positioned in the bottom of the cesium cell on the surface of the housing opposite the housing opening and the cylindrical portion passes through the wall of the housing to the exterior. Collecting cone improves light collection to the photodetector by about 50%.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for triggering and measuring electrochemiluminescent phenomena using a voltage waveform applied at the voltammetric working electrode which improves the precision and accuracy of measurements. This waveform has a decreasing scan rate in the range of voltages for which electrochemiluminescence is triggered and is substantially sinusoidal in shape in this range. The waveform results from locating the reference electrode of a potentiostat in close potential proximity to its counter electrode, and applying a uniform scanning voltage waveform at the reference electrode. The waveform also can be synthesized digitally, converted to analog form, and applied directly to the working electrode with the reference electrode in close potential proximity to the working electrode.

Abstract: An apparatus for conducting measurements of electrochemiluminescent (ECL) phenomena includes a cell unit having an electrode configuration for inducing the emission of ECL light by the application of a selected voltage waveform to a sample fluid including an ECL moiety. The sample fluid is transported to and from the cell unit by a flow-through pump/tubing system. A photomultiplier tube detects the intensity of light emitted by the sample fluid during the ECL measurement process. A computer control unit both analyzes the detected data and provides digital control signals to the cell unit to generate effective voltage waveforms. The digital control signals are supplied to a novel pulse width modulated digital to analog converter which outputs a ramp voltage waveform having the desired slope.

Abstract: An optical atomic resonance filter using a pump laser, a buffer gas and calcium as an atomic vapor converts signals at the g Fraunhofer wavelength (422.674 nm) to UV light which is readily detectable by high sensitivity, large area, low noise, conventional photomultiplier tubes.

Abstract: An optical gas sensor comprises a light emitting element; a photo detecting element; a gas sensing element including a thin film containing an organic pigment, the gas sensing element responding to light emitted from the light emitting element to emit fluorescence or phosphorescence; and a filter for selectively picking up fluoroescence or phosphorescence, the gas sensing element and the filter being disposed in an optical path ranging from the light emitting element to the photo detecting element.

Abstract: A bioluminescent detector is disclosed for detecting and measuring in situ bioluminescence generated by marine microorganisms. The detector includes a laminar flow chamber, a turbulent flow chamber in fluid communication with the laminar flow chamber, and a photon detector network positioned with the turbulent flow chamber. The detector is dropped over the side of a ship which may be underway and sinks at constant velocity. As the detector descends, ocean water flows through the laminar flow chamber and then into the turbulent flow chamber where fluid turbulence subjects any bioluminescent organisms present to shear stress, causing them to generate photons that are detected by the photon detector network.

Abstract: The QLIS images and quantifies low-level chemiluminescent reactions in an electromagnetic field. It is capable of real time nonperturbing measurement and simultaneous recording of many biochemical and chemical reactions such as luminescent immunoassays or enzyme assays. The system comprises image transfer optics, a low-light level digitizing camera with image intensifying microchannel plates, an image process or, and a control computer. The image transfer optics may be a fiber image guide with a bend, or a microscope, to take the light outside of the RF field. Output of the camera is transformed into a localized rate of cumulative digitalized data or enhanced video display or hard-copy images. The system may be used as a luminescent microdosimetry device for radiofrequency or microwave radiation, as a thermal dosimeter, or in the dosimetry of ultra-sound (sonoluminescence) or ionizing radiation.