Abstract: A method is provided for spatially modulating electromagnetic radiation at high frequency where the modulation is phase, polarization or direction of propagation comprises a substrate carrying an ordered array of optical elements in relative motion with respect to an incident beam of electromagnetic radiation to be modulated and measuring the relative motion. The array contains at least three optical elements and at least two different types of optical elements. At least some of the optical elements are formed from and integral to the substrate material. The optical elements may be fabricated on the substrate material by a subtractive process. The electromagnetic radiation to be modulated is incident on a region of the substrate termed the active region. As the substrate moves relative to the incident electromagnetic radiation, the active region also moves and the designation of individual optical elements changes also.