Abstract: An apparatus, system, and method are disclosed for minimizing NOx in exhaust gasses. The apparatus includes an ionization module configured to at least partially ionize an exhaust gas of an engine. A characterization module is configured to identify NOx ions present in the ionized exhaust gas, and an engine control module is configured to communicate with the characterization module and modify engine parameters in response to identified NOx levels. The system includes an internal combustion engine having an intake manifold configured to deliver an air-fuel mixture to at least one combustion chamber, an exhaust manifold configured to receive exhaust gasses from the combustion chamber, and the apparatus. The method includes controlling an ionization module configured to at least partially ionize an exhaust gas of an engine, identifying NOx ions present in the ionized exhaust gas, and modifying one or more selected engine parameters in response to identified NOx levels.

Abstract: A loose leaf binder is formed from three parts assembled in a manner providing a binder of minimum thickness.

Abstract: A claw binder features the provision of groups of pairs of claw halves, which vary in size and are adapted to be removably/interchangeably fixed to a base of the binder in order to selectively accommodate the binder to support stacks of sheet material of substantially different thicknesses.