Abstract: An apparatus for warming fluids includes a heating element having a resistance value that limits an amount of heat dissipated from the heating element to a threshold temperature value in response to a specific amount of electrical energy being applied to the heating element. A fluid carrying member may have the heating element coupled thereto to transfer heat from the heating element to a fluid within the fluid carrying member. A power supply may control a temperature of the fluid so as not to exceed the threshold temperature value by applying the specific amount of electrical energy to the heating element.

Abstract: According to some embodiments, an apparatus for warming a patient on a thermal pad includes a heating element to heat a surface of the thermal pad. A power unit is operable to provide power to the heating element. Respective ones of a plurality of sensors are coupled to detect temperature at select portions of the surface of the thermal pad, while a heating element sensor is coupled to detect a temperature of the heating element. A temperature control circuit board is embedded within the thermal pad and is electrically coupled to the plurality of sensors and the heating element sensor. The temperature control circuit board is operable to limit a temperature at the surface of the thermal pad to a safe temperature based on the temperature detected by the plurality of sensors and the heating element sensor.