Abstract: Systems that can overcome the limitations of current blood flow measurement systems and systems that can track in 3D the explosively driven fragments traveling at 1,000 m/s or faster, will provide temporal resolution of 1 ?s, spatial resolution of 50 ?m to 1 mm (or finer based on geometry), and allow imaging over at least 122×122 cm2 area are disclosed hereinbelow. These systems use a double-pulsed X-ray generator.