Abstract: A compliant tri-axial force sensor is disclosed that may be incorporated into soft robots or electronic skin. The sensor comprises a first electrode layer including column electrodes in a first orientation; a second electrode layer including column electrodes in a second orientation that is orthogonal to the first orientation; a force-dependent active layer provided between the first electrode layer and the second electrode layer configured to change at least one property—such as quantum tunneling, conductivity, resistivity, or electrical charge—when subjected to a force; at least one three dimensional bump arranged to transmit externally applied force through the active layer; and at least one spacer arranged to maintain a separation between two or more layers in the sensor until an external force is applied.