Abstract: A method of calibration of magnification of a microscope with the use of a diffraction grating has the steps of determining a mean period of a diffraction grating by irradiating the diffraction grating with an electromagnetic radiation having a known wavelength and analyzing a resulting diffraction pattern, determining a scatter of individual values of a period of the diffraction grating by multiple measurements of periods of the diffraction grating by a microscope in pixels in one area in a microscope field of view, and calculating a mean value of the period and the scatter based on the measurements, determining a sufficient number of measurements of the period for providing an accepted statistic error of a magnification of the microscope, performing measurements corresponding to the determined acceptable number of measurements, of individual values of the period in pixels in a plurality of portions of the diffraction grating, calculating a general mean value of the period in pixels based on the immediately

Abstract: A method of calibration of magnification of a microscope with the use of a diffraction grating has the steps of determining a mean period of a diffraction grating by irradiating the diffraction grating with an electromagnetic radiation having a known wavelength and analyzing a resulting diffraction pattern, determining a scatter of individual values of a period of the diffraction grating by multiple measurements of periods of the diffraction grating by a microscope in pixels in one area in a microscope field of view, and calculating a mean value of the period and the scatter based on the measurements, determining a sufficient number of measurements of the period for providing an accepted statistic error of a magnification of the microscope, performing measurements corresponding to the determined acceptable number of measurements, of individual values of the period in pixels in a plurality of portions of the diffraction grating, calculating a general mean value of the period in pixels based on the immediately

Abstract: A method of calibrating magnification of optical devices includes providing a mask with a predetermined pattern, projecting radiation through the mask so as to form a pattern image, and comparing a pattern of the image with a pattern of the mask to determine deviations of the image of the projected image from the image of the mask.

Abstract: A method of diagnosing a parameter of a scanning electron microscope such as magnification, linearity and stability, includes loading a reference material into a microscope, setting a permissible limit of a value of the parameters, inputting a pitch of the reference material, inputting a magnification of the microscope, acquiring a set of digital images on the reference material, analyzing the digital image line after line with determination of a pitch of features of the image in each line, in mutually orthogonal directions, checking if all lines of the digital image has been analyzed, determining a mean value of the pitch of the features in each orthogonal direction, comparing the obtained value of the pitch of the image with a known value of the pitch of the reference material to determine a ratio indicative of a modification, and determining a precision of the measurements of the pitch by statistical analysis of the pitch measurements.

Abstract: A method of automatically correcting magnification and/or non linearity of scanning electron microscope has the steps of loading a reference material in the microscope, inputting a pitch of the reference material and a nominal magnification of the microscope, obtaining an image of the reference material, determining a pitch and/or a linearity of the image of the reference material, comparing the pitch of the image with the inputted pitch of the reference material to obtain a ratio indicative of the magnification and/or comparing the magnification in different locations across an image field indicative of the linearity, comparing the thusly determined magnification with the nominal magnification, and if an error of magnification exceeds a predetermined value, adjusting the scanning electron microscope.

Abstract: A method of quantitative determination of an image drift in a digital imaging microscope includes using a pattern which has a plurality of three-dimensional features spaced from one another into mutually perpendicular directions, producing a set of images of the pattern within certain time intervals therebetween, and determining an offset of each of the features in the set of the thusly obtained images as an image thrift.

Abstract: A device for enhancing photosynthesis has a membrane which is formed so that the membrane covers plants or vegetables, the membrane having photo-transforming qualities which convert UV light for plants and vegetables into growth-enhancing light that promotes photosynthesis.

Abstract: A significantly improved focusing technique is set forth for use with electron beams, particularly in scanning electron microscopes and/or CRTs. This technique utilizes an in-situ differential signal measurement of an object surface to form a signal which is particularly sensitive to edges in the sample at a superimposed frequency. Perfect focus is obtained when the signal strength at the superimposed frequency is a maximum thereby resulting in a minimum spot size.

Abstract: The operating characteristics of an SEM apparatus are enhanced by carrying out in situ deflection during electron beam scanning of an object to be examined. Differential signals derived from the in situ deflection are a direct measure of the spatial derivative of any geometric or material variations on the surface of the scanned object.

Abstract: Luminescent materials are formed by annealing a luminescence sample with a high energy electron beam at temperatures near the vicinity of liquid nitrogen temperatures.

Abstract: An x-ray diffraction crystal for the analysis of x-rays comprisng at least two insoluble monolayers of (i) a first divalent metal soap, separated by (ii) at least one monolayer of either a fatty acid alone, or of a second divalent metal soap, the second metal having a lower atomic number than the first metal.Such crystals are formed by alternately raising and lowering a solid substrate through the monolayer-covered liquid surfaces of the first divalent metal cation soap monolayer, and the second divalent metal cation soap monolayer or fatty acid monolayer.

Abstract: An x-ray diffraction crystal for the analysis of x-rays having a wave-length of 50 Angstroms or greater comprising at least two insoluble monolayers of fatty acids in the form of metal soaps, separated by monolayer pairs of differing metal cation - metal soap or non-cation soaps.Such crystals are formed by alternately raising and lowering a solid substrate through the monolayer-covered liquid surfaces of a bivalent heavy element cation and a bivalent light element cation or cation deleted monolayer.