Abstract: A computer-implemented method for localizing a vehicle can include accessing, by a computing system comprising one or more computing devices, a machine-learned retrieval model that has been trained using a ground truth dataset comprising a plurality of pre-localized sensor observations. Each of the plurality of pre-localized sensor observations has a predetermined pose value associated with a previously obtained sensor reading representation. The method also includes obtaining, by the computing system, a current sensor reading representation obtained by one or more sensors located at the vehicle. The method also includes inputting, by the computing system, the current sensor reading representation into the machine-learned retrieval model.