Abstract: A gas ionization chamber, includes a first electrode, a fence electrode disposed below the first electrode, a second electrode disposed below the fence electrode, a first dielectric layer disposed between the first electrode and the fence electrode, and a second dielectric layer disposed between the fence electrode and the second electrode. The first and second electrodes, and the first and second dielectric layers include a plurality of aligned holes forming channels configured to permit gas flow between the first electrode to the second electrode through an opening in the fence electrode, the plurality of aligned holes being arranged in a pattern having a central region with a first set of aligned holes and a peripheral region having a second set of aligned holes, and wherein a diameter of at least one hole of the first set of aligned holes is less than or equal to about 0.5 millimeters.

Abstract: Provided are nanograting structures and methods of fabrication thereof that allow for stable, robust gratings and nanostructure embedded gratings that enhance electromagnetic field, fluorescence, and photothermal coupling through surface plasmon or, photonic resonance. The gratings produced exhibit long term stability of the grating structure and improved shelf life without degradation of the properties such as fluorescence enhancement. Embodiments of the invention build nanograting structures layer-by-layer to optimize structural and optical properties and to enhance durability.

Abstract: Provided are nanograting structures and methods of fabrication thereof that allow for stable, robust gratings and nanostructure embedded gratings that enhance electromagnetic field, fluorescence, and photothermal coupling through surface plasmon or, photonic resonance. The gratings produced exhibit long term stability of the grating structure and improved shelf life without degradation of the properties such as fluorescence enhancement. Embodiments of the invention build nanograting structures layer-by-layer to optimize structural and optical properties and to enhance durability.

Abstract: Provided are nanograting structures and methods of fabrication thereof that allow for stable, robust gratings and nanostructure embedded gratings that enhance electromagnetic field, fluorescence, and photothermal coupling through surface plasmon or, photonic resonance. The gratings produced exhibit long term stability of the grating structure and improved shelf life without degradation of the properties such as fluorescence enhancement. Embodiments of the invention build nanograting structures layer-by-layer to optimize structural and optical properties and to enhance durability.

Abstract: Provided are nanograting structures and methods of fabrication thereof that allow for stable, robust gratings and nanostructure embedded gratings that enhance electromagnetic field, fluorescence, and photothermal coupling through surface plasmon or, photonic resonance. The gratings produced exhibit long term stability of the grating structure and improved shelf life without degradation of the properties such as fluorescence enhancement. Embodiments of the invention build nanograting structures layer-by-layer to optimize structural and optical properties and to enhance durability.