Abstract: In an aspect, an electrochemical cell comprises: a positive electrode; a negative electrode, said negative electrode having an alloy having a composition comprising V; and an electrolyte; wherein an additive is provided in said electrolyte to form primary vanadate ions upon dissociation of said additive in said electrolyte; and wherein the electrochemical cell is a metal hydride battery. In some embodiments of this aspect, the alloy is configured to sorb hydrogen during charging of said electrochemical cell and desorb hydrogen during discharging of said electrochemical cell. In some embodiments of this aspect, the electrolyte has a pH selected from the range of 13 to 15.

Abstract: Methods of preparing improved metal hydride alloy materials are provided. The alloys include a mixture of at least four of vanadium, titanium, nickel, chromium, and iron. The alloy is processed by at least one of thermal and physical treatment to generate a refined microstructure exhibiting improved kinetics when used as electrodes in MH batteries (e.g., higher discharge current). The thermal treatment includes rapid cooling of the alloy at greater than 104 K/s. The physical treatment includes mechanical pulverization of the alloy after cooling. The microstructure is a single phase (body centered cubic) with a heterogeneous composition including a plurality of primary regions having a lattice parameter selected from the range of 3.02 ? to 3.22 ? and a plurality of secondary regions having a lattice parameter selected from the range of 3.00 ? to 3.22 ? and at least one physical dimension having a maximum average value less than 1 ?m.

Abstract: In an aspect, an electrochemical cell comprises: a positive electrode; a negative electrode, said negative electrode having an alloy having a composition comprising V; and an electrolyte; wherein an additive is provided in said electrolyte to form primary vanadate ions upon dissociation of said additive in said electrolyte; and wherein the electrochemical cell is a metal hydride battery. In some embodiments of this aspect, the alloy is configured to sorb hydrogen during charging of said electrochemical cell and desorb hydrogen during discharging of said electrochemical cell. In some embodiments of this aspect, the electrolyte has a pH selected from the range of 13 to 15.

Abstract: Methods of preparing improved metal hydride alloy materials are provided. The alloys include a mixture of at least four of vanadium, titanium, nickel, chromium, and iron. The alloy is processed by at least one of thermal and physical treatment to generate a refined microstructure exhibiting improved kinetics when used as electrodes in MH batteries (e.g., higher discharge current). The thermal treatment includes rapid cooling of the alloy at greater than 104K/s. The physical treatment includes mechanical pulverization of the alloy after cooling. The microstructure is a single phase (body centered cubic) with a heterogeneous composition including a plurality of primary regions having a lattice parameter selected from the range of 3.02 ? to 3.22 ? and a plurality of secondary regions having a lattice parameter selected from the range of 3.00 ? to 3.22 ? and at least one physical dimension having a maximum average value less than 1 ?m.

Abstract: Provided are methods for storing gases on porous adsorbents, methods for optimizing the storage of gases on porous adsorbents, methods of making porous adsorbents, and methods of gas storage of optimized compositions, as in systems containing porous adsorbents and gas adsorbed on the surface of the porous adsorbent. The disclosed methods and systems feature a constant or increasing isosteric enthalpy of adsorption as a function of uptake of the gas onto the exposed surface of a porous adsorbent. Adsorbents with a porous geometry and surface dimensions suited to a particular adsorbate are exposed to the gas at elevated pressures in the specific regime where n/V (density) is larger than predicted by the ideal gas law by more than several percent.

Abstract: Described are systems and methods for accurately characterizing thermodynamic and materials properties of electrodes and battery systems and for characterizing the state of health of electrodes and battery systems. Measurement of physical attributes of electrodes and batteries corresponding to thermodynamically stabilized electrode conditions permit determination of thermodynamic parameters, including state functions such as the Gibbs free energy, enthalpy and entropy of electrode/electrochemical cell reactions, that enable prediction of important performance attributes of electrode materials and battery systems, such as energy, power density, current rate, cycle life and state of health. Also provided are systems and methods for charging a battery according to its state of health.

Abstract: Provided are methods for storing gases on porous adsorbents, methods for optimizing the storage of gases on porous adsorbents, methods of making porous adsorbents, and methods of gas storage of optimized compositions, as in systems containing porous adsorbents and gas adsorbed on the surface of the porous adsorbent. The disclosed methods and systems feature a constant or increasing isosteric enthalpy of adsorption as a function of uptake of the gas onto the exposed surface of a porous adsorbent. Adsorbents with a porous geometry and surface dimensions suited to a particular adsorbate are exposed to the gas at elevated pressures in the specific regime where n/V (density) is larger than predicted by the ideal gas law by more than several percent.

Abstract: Described herein are systems and methods for accurately characterizing thermodynamic and materials properties of electrodes and electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems. Enhanced sensitivity provided by the present methods and systems combined with measurement conditions that reflect thermodynamically stabilized electrode conditions allow very accurate measurement of thermodynamic parameters, including state functions such as the Gibbs free energy, enthalpy and entropy of electrode/electrochemical cell reactions, that enable prediction of important performance attributes of electrode materials and electrochemical systems, such as the energy, power density, current rate, the cycle life and the state of health of an electrochemical cell. Also provided are systems and methods for charging electrochemical cells; for example, systems and methods for charging an electrochemical according to its state of health.

Abstract: Described are systems and methods for accurately characterizing thermodynamic and materials properties of electrodes and battery systems and for characterizing the state of health of electrodes and battery systems. Measurement of physical attributes of electrodes and batteries corresponding to thermodynamically stabilized electrode conditions permit determination of thermodynamic parameters, including state functions such as the Gibbs free energy, enthalpy and entropy of electrode/electrochemical cell reactions, that enable prediction of important performance attributes of electrode materials and battery systems, such as energy, power density, current rate, cycle life and state of health. Also provided are systems and methods for charging a battery according to its state of health.

Abstract: Electrodes comprising an alkali metal, for example, lithium, alloyed with nanostructured materials of formula SizGe(z-1), where 0<z?1; formula SizGe(z-1), where 0<z<1; and/or germanium exhibit a combination of improved capacities, cycle lives, and/or cycling rates compared with similar electrodes made from graphite. These electrodes are useful as anodes for secondary electrochemical cells, for example, batteries and electrochemical supercapacitors.

Abstract: Electrodes comprising an alkali metal, for example, lithium, alloyed with nanostructured materials of formula SizGe(z-1), where 0<z?1; formula SizGe(z-1), where 0<z<1; and/or germanium exhibit a combination of improved capacities, cycle lives, and/or cycling rates compared with similar electrodes made from graphite. These electrodes are useful as anodes for secondary electrochemical cells, for example, batteries and electrochemical supercapacitors.

Abstract: Described herein are systems and methods for accurately characterizing thermodynamic and materials properties of electrodes and electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems. Enhanced sensitivity provided by the present methods and systems combined with measurement conditions that reflect thermodynamically stabilized electrode conditions allow very accurate measurement of thermodynamic parameters, including state functions such as the Gibbs free energy, enthalpy and entropy of electrode/electrochemical cell reactions, that enable prediction of important performance attributes of electrode materials and electrochemical systems, such as the energy, power density, current rate, the cycle life and the state of health of an electrochemical cell. Also provided are systems and methods for charging electrochemical cells; for example, systems and methods for charging an electrochemical according to its state of health.

Abstract: Methods of purifying samples are provided that are capable of removing carbonaceous and noncarbonaceous impurities from a sample containing a carbon material having a selected structure. Purification methods are provided for removing residual metal catalyst particles enclosed in multilayer carbonaceous impurities in samples generate by catalytic synthesis methods. Purification methods are provided wherein carbonaceous impurities in a sample are at least partially exfoliated, thereby facilitating subsequent removal of carbonaceous and noncarbonaceous impurities from the sample. Methods of purifying carbon nanotube-containing samples are provided wherein an intercalant is added to the sample and subsequently reacted with an exfoliation initiator to achieve exfoliation of carbonaceous impurities.

Abstract: The present invention provides systems and methods for accurately characterizing thermodynamic and materials properties of electrodes and electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems. Systems and methods of the present invention are configured for simultaneously collecting a suite of measurements characterizing a plurality of interconnected electrochemical and thermodynamic parameters relating to the electrode reaction state of advancement, voltage and temperature.

Abstract: Methods of purifying samples are provided that are capable of removing carbonaceous and noncarbonaceous impurities from a sample containing a carbon material having a selected structure. Purification methods are provided for removing residual metal catalyst particles enclosed in multilayer carbonaceous impurities in samples generate by catalytic synthesis methods. Purification methods are provided wherein carbonaceous impurities in a sample are at least partially exfoliated, thereby facilitating subsequent removal of carbonaceous and noncarbonaceous impurities from the sample. Methods of purifying carbon nanotube-containing samples are provided wherein an intercalant is added to the sample and subsequently reacted with an exfoliation initiator to achieve exfoliation of carbonaceous impurities.

Abstract: Electrodes comprising lithium alloyed with nanostructured silicon materials exhibit improved capacities, cycle lives, and/or cycling rates compared with similar electrodes made from bulk silicon. The electrodes do not require a conductive diluent such as carbon black. These electrodes are useful as anodes for secondary electrochemical cells, for example, batteries and electrochemical supercapacitors.

Abstract: A method of making hydrogen storage powder resistant to fracture in service involves forming a melt having the appropriate composition for the hydrogen storage material, such, for example, LaNi.sub.5 and other AB.sub.5 type materials and AB.sub.5+x materials, where x is from about -2.5 to about +2.5, including x=0, and the melt is gas atomized under conditions of melt temperature and atomizing gas pressure to form generally spherical powder particles. The hydrogen storage powder exhibits improved chemcial homogeneity as a result of rapid solidfication from the melt and small particle size that is more resistant to microcracking during hydrogen absorption/desorption cycling. A hydrogen storage component, such as an electrode for a battery or electrochemical fuel cell, made from the gas atomized hydrogen storage material is resistant to hydrogen degradation upon hydrogen absorption/desorption that occurs for example, during charging/discharging of a battery.

Abstract: Apparatus is provided for detecting radiation such as gamma rays and X-rays generated in backscatter Mossbauer effect spectroscopy and X-ray spectrometry, which has a large "window" for detecting radiation emanating over a wide solid angle from a specimen and which generates substantially the same output pulse height for monoenergetic radiation that passes through any portion of the detection chamber. The apparatus includes a substantially toroidal chamber with conductive walls forming a cathode, and a wire anode extending in a circle within the chamber with the anode lying closer to the inner side of the toroid which has the least diameter than to the outer side. The placement of the anode produces an electric field, in a region close to the anode, which has substantially the same gradient in all directions extending radially from the anode, so that the number of avalanche electrons generated by ionizing radiation is independent of the path of the radiation through the chamber.