Abstract: One example method includes receiving an image of a tissue sample stained with a stain; determining, by a first trained machine learning (“ML”) model using the image, a first set of abnormal cells in the tissue sample; receiving an autofluorescence image of the unstained tissue sample; determining, by a second trained ML model using the autofluorescence image and the first set of cells, a second set of abnormal cells, the second set of abnormal cells being a subset of the first set of abnormal cells; and identifying the abnormal cells of the second set of abnormal cells.