Abstract: A battery cell includes an electrolyte, an anode, and a cathode. The cathode comprises a plurality of cathode active material units at least partially coated with graphene encapsulated nanoparticles, carbon, and binders. Each of the graphene encapsulated nanoparticles comprises a nanoparticle encapsulated in one or more graphene layers, an outermost of the one or more graphene layers having extended graphene sections. The one or more graphene layers or the extended graphene sections comprise one or more functional groups including hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen.

Abstract: The composition of material being grown by vapor deposition may be analyzed in situ by applying a beam of electrons, from a source such as a RHEED gun, incident at a low angle to the material being grown. The energy levels in the reflected beam may be analyzed by spectroscopy to qualitatively and quantitatively the presence and absence of elements, as well as their ratio, by analysis of the number of electrons at energy levels related to core level transitions representative of specific materials. Such compositional analysis may be used in real time to control the deposition growth process.