Abstract: The present invention provides biological computing systems comprising computing units that process input signals to produce an output signal. In particular, the computing units include, for example, cells and proteins that function to convert biological signals into a discernable output that provides information about a biological sample. Further provided are methods of using such biological computing systems, such as for the diagnosis of various diseases and conditions.

Abstract: Methods of forming a nano-structure for electron extraction are disclosed. One method of forming a nano-structure comprises irradiating an area on a first surface of a thermal conductive film to melt the area across the film. The film is insulated on a second surface to provide two-dimensional heat transfer across the film. The liquid density of the film is greater than the solid density thereof. The method further comprises cooling the area inwardly from the periphery thereof to form a nano-structure having an apical nano-tip for electron extraction.