Abstract: A residual stress gradient in a structural layer is employed to form a resonator deflected out of plane when at rest and the resulting strain gradient is utilized in out-of-plane transduction. Use of the strain gradient enables out-of-plane (e.g., vertical) transduction without yield and reliability problems due to stiction (e.g., the sticking of the resonator to the substrate) when the resonator is driven by an electrode to dynamically deflect out-of-plane. In particular embodiments, out-of-plane transduction is utilized to achieve better transduction efficiency as compared to lateral resonator designs of similar linear dimensions (i.e. footprint) results in a lower motional resistance.