Abstract: A water softener system includes a brine tank, an ion-exchange resin and a softener control valve fluidly coupling the brine tank and the ion-exchange resin. The softener control valve has an inlet configured to receive a flow of feed-water and an outlet configured to deliver a flow of product water. A flow meter is configured to monitor a flow rate of water to or from the control valve, and a sensor is arranged upstream of the inlet of the softener control valve to measure a fluid property of the flow of feed-water. A controller is configured to calculate an available exchange capacity of the ion-exchange resin using flow rate data from the flow meter and a hardness value of the feed-water, which the controller calculates using a fluid property value from the sensor and a predetermined coefficient.

Abstract: An apparatus to remove ions including a plurality of capacitive electrode stacks. Each capacitive electrode stack may have: a plurality of first electrodes including a plurality of first current collectors; a plurality of second electrodes including a plurality of second current collectors; and a spacer between the first and second electrodes to allow water to flow in between the electrodes. The second current collectors of a first of the plurality of capacitive electrode stacks may be connected to the first current collectors of a second of the plurality of capacitive electrode stacks.

Abstract: An apparatus to remove ions including a plurality of capacitive electrode stacks. Each capacitive electrode stack may have: a plurality of first electrodes including a plurality of first current collectors; a plurality of second electrodes including a plurality of second current collectors; and a spacer between the first and second electrodes to allow water to flow in between the electrodes. The second current collectors of a first of the plurality of capacitive electrode stacks may be connected to the first current collectors of a second of the plurality of capacitive electrode stacks.

Abstract: An apparatus to remove ions including a plurality of capacitive electrode stacks. Each capacitive electrode stack may have: a plurality of first electrodes including a plurality of first current collectors; a plurality of second electrodes including a plurality of second current collectors; and a spacer between the first and second electrodes to allow water to flow in between the electrodes. The second current collectors of a first of the plurality of capacitive electrode stacks may be connected to the first current collectors of a second of the plurality of capacitive electrode stacks.

Abstract: A method of producing an apparatus to remove ions from water is disclosed, wherein the apparatus includes a first electrode having a first current collector, a second electrode having a second current collector, and a spacer between the first and second electrodes to allow water to flow in between the electrodes. The method includes flushing water through the spacer and subsequently exerting a force on the stack so as to compress the first and second electrodes and the spacer. Exerting a force on the stack may result in a pressure of less than 5 bar, less than 2 bar, or between 1 bar and 0.5 bar, between the electrodes and the spacer.

Abstract: An apparatus to remove ions, the apparatus including a capacitive electrode stack. The capacitive electrode stack has a first electrode that includes a first current collector, a second electrode, and a spacer between the first and second electrodes to allow water to flow in between the first and second electrodes. The apparatus has a connector to connect the current collector inside the housing with an electrical source outside the housing, and the connector includes a closing off portion to close an opening in the housing and to form a boundary for the water in the housing.

Abstract: An apparatus to remove ions, the apparatus including a capacitive electrode stack. The capacitive electrode stack has a first electrode that includes a first current collector, a second electrode, and a spacer between the first and second electrodes to allow water to flow in between the first and second electrodes. The apparatus has a connector to connect the current collector inside the housing with an electrical source outside the housing, and the connector includes a closing off portion to close an opening in the housing and to form a boundary for the water in the housing.

Abstract: A method of producing an apparatus to remove ions from water is disclosed, wherein the apparatus includes a first electrode having a first current collector, a second electrode having a second current collector, and a spacer between the first and second electrodes to allow water to flow in between the electrodes. The method includes flushing water through the spacer and subsequently exerting a force on the stack so as to compress the first and second electrodes and the spacer. Exerting a force on the stack may result in a pressure of less than 5 bar, less than 2 bar, or between 1 bar and 0.5 bar, between the electrodes and the spacer.

Abstract: An apparatus to remove ions including a plurality of capacitive electrode stacks. Each capacitive electrode stack may have: a plurality of first electrodes including a plurality of first current collectors; a plurality of second electrodes including a plurality of second current collectors; and a spacer between the first and second electrodes to allow water to flow in between the electrodes. The second current collectors of a first of the plurality of capacitive electrode stacks may be connected to the first current collectors of a second of the plurality of capacitive electrode stacks.