Abstract: According to some aspects, a monochromatic x-ray source is provided. The monochromatic x-ray source comprises an electron source configured to generate electrons, a primary target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source to produce broadband x-ray radiation in response to electrons impinging on the primary target, and a secondary target comprising at least one layer of material capable of producing monochromatic x-ray radiation in response to incident broadband x-ray radiation emitted by the primary target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response to irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector positioned to detect at least some of the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a carrier configured for use with a broadband x-ray source comprising an electron source and a primary target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source to produce broadband x-ray radiation in response to electrons impinging on the primary target is provided. The carrier comprising a housing configured to be removably coupled to the broadband x-ray source and configured to accommodate a secondary target capable of producing monochromatic x-ray radiation in response to incident broadband x-ray radiation, the housing comprising a transmissive portion configured to allow broadband x-ray radiation to be transmitted to the secondary target when present, and a blocking portion configured to absorb broadband x-ray radiation.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a carrier configured for use with a broadband x-ray source comprising an electron source and a primary target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source to produce broadband x-ray radiation in response to electrons impinging on the primary target is provided. The carrier comprising a housing configured to be removeably coupled to the broadband x-ray source and configured to accommodate a secondary target capable of producing monochromatic x-ray radiation in response to incident broadband x-ray radiation, the housing comprising a transmissive portion configured to allow broadband x-ray radiation to be transmitted to the secondary target when present, and a blocking portion configured to absorb broadband x-ray radiation.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a carrier configured for use with a broadband x-ray source comprising an electron source and a primary target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source to produce broadband x-ray radiation in response to electrons impinging on the primary target is provided. The carrier comprising a housing configured to be removeably coupled to the broadband x-ray source and configured to accommodate a secondary target capable of producing monochromatic x-ray radiation in response to incident broadband x-ray radiation, the housing comprising a transmissive portion configured to allow broadband x-ray radiation to be transmitted to the secondary target when present, and a blocking portion configured to absorb broadband x-ray radiation.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a carrier configured for use with a broadband x-ray source comprising an electron source and a primary target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source to produce broadband x-ray radiation in response to electrons impinging on the primary target is provided. The carrier comprising a housing configured to be removably coupled to the broadband x-ray source and configured to accommodate a secondary target capable of producing monochromatic x-ray radiation in response to incident broadband x-ray radiation, the housing comprising a transmissive portion configured to allow broadband x-ray radiation to be transmitted to the secondary target when present, and a blocking portion configured to absorb broadband x-ray radiation.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a carrier configured for use with a broadband x-ray source comprising an electron source and a primary target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source to produce broadband x-ray radiation in response to electrons impinging on the primary target is provided. The carrier comprising a housing configured to be removeably coupled to the broadband x-ray source and configured to accommodate a secondary target capable of producing monochromatic x-ray radiation in response to incident broadband x-ray radiation, the housing comprising a transmissive portion configured to allow broadband x-ray radiation to be transmitted to the secondary target when present, and a blocking portion configured to absorb broadband x-ray radiation.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a method is provided comprising generating first monochromatic x-ray radiation at a first energy, directing at least some of the first monochromatic x-ray radiation to irradiate subject matter of interest, detecting at least some of the first monochromatic x-ray radiation transmitted through the subject matter of interest, and determining information about a chemical composition of the subject matter of interest based, at least in part, on the detected first monochromatic x-ray radiation and the first energy.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response to irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector positioned to detect at least some of the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response to irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector positioned to detect at least some of the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response to irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector positioned to detect at least some of the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a method is provided comprising generating first monochromatic x-ray radiation at a first energy, directing at least some of the first monochromatic x-ray radiation to irradiate subject matter of interest, detecting at least some of the first monochromatic x-ray radiation transmitted through the subject matter of interest, and determining information about a chemical composition of the subject matter of interest based, at least in part, on the detected first monochromatic x-ray radiation and the first energy.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response to irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector positioned to detect at least some of the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response to irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector positioned to detect at least some of the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a hybrid optic is provided. The hybrid optic comprises a capillary optic for receiving x-rays from an x-ray source at an entrance portion of the capillary optic and for providing x-rays at an exit portion of the capillary optic, and a grazing incidence multi-shell optic (GIMSO) coupled, at an entrance portion of the GIMSO, to the exit portion of the capillary optic to receive x-rays emerging from the exit portion of the capillary optic, the GIMSO including an exit portion for providing x-rays.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arranged to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response to irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector positioned to detect at least some of to the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, a hybrid optic is provided. The hybrid optic comprises a capillary optic for receiving x-rays from an x-ray source at an entrance portion of the capillary optic and for providing x-rays at an exit portion of the capillary optic, and a grazing incidence multi-shell optic (GIMSO) coupled, at an entrance portion of the GIMSO, to the exit portion of the capillary optic to receive x-rays emerging from the exit portion of the capillary optic, the GIMSO including an exit portion for providing x-rays.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arrange to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector position to detect at least some of the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: According to some aspects, an x-ray apparatus for imaging and/or radiation therapy is provided, the x-ray apparatus comprises an electron source capable of generating electrons, at least one first target arrange to receive electrons from the electron source, the at least one first target comprising material that, in response to being irradiated by the electrons, emits broad spectrum x-ray radiation, at least one second target arranged to receive at least some of the broad spectrum x-ray radiation, the at least one second target comprising material that, in response irradiation by broad spectrum x-ray radiation from the first target, emits monochromatic x-ray radiation, and at least one detector position to detect at least some of the monochromatic x-ray radiation emitted from the at least one second target.

Abstract: A method of making a highly sensitive epitaxial germanium low temperature sensor that is superior in the method of production and performance than those currently available. The geometry and sensitivity of the sensor can be tuned to desired temperature ranges, and specifically can operate at cryogenic temperatures. The sensor can be manufactured uniformly and reproducibly in large quantities at relatively low cost in which large area arrays are possible. The applications of the sensors range from conventional low temperature thermometry and control in laboratory and industrial settings, to applications associated with infrared, x-ray, particle and plasma physics and spectroscopy.