Abstract: A cooling system for apparatus powered by electricity, that generates a substantial amount of heat during operation, and the heat must be dissipated to avoid failure of electrical and/or electronic components, such as semiconductor devices and integrated circuits, comprising the electrical apparatus. The cooling system employs water impinged on a heat sink thermally coupled with electrical apparatus, at subatmospheric pressure. The attendant phase change of the water to steam at a reduced temperature due to the subatmospheric pressure improves removal of waste heat to prevent failure of the electrical apparatus.

Abstract: A cooling system for apparatus powered by electricity, that generates a substantial amount of heat during operation, and the heat must be dissipated to avoid failure of electrical and/or electronic components, such as semiconductor devices and integrated circuits, comprising the electrical apparatus. The cooling system employs water impinged on a heat sink thermally coupled with electrical apparatus, at subatmospheric pressure. The attendant phase change of the water to steam at a reduced temperature due to the subatmospheric pressure improves removal of waste heat to prevent failure of the electrical apparatus.

Abstract: A cooling system for apparatus powered by electricity, that generates a substantial amount of heat during operation, and the heat must be dissipated to avoid failure of electrical and/or electronic components, such as semiconductor devices and integrated circuits, comprising the electrical apparatus. The cooling system employs liquid ice impinged on a heat sink thermally coupled with electrical apparatus. The attendant phase changes of the liquid ice first to water and then to steam remove a substantial amount of waste heat to prevent failure of the electrical apparatus.

Abstract: A method for simultaneously forming microstructures in substrates and altering their chemical character. The method involves exposing a surface portion of a substrate to light source, which is strong enough and of the appropriate wavelength to cause ablation of the substrate. The ablation of the substrate is controlled to form microstructures therein, such as channels. The ablation is conducted under a chemical atmosphere, which causes a change in the chemical functionality of the microstructures. The chemical atmosphere can be a gas, liquid or solid that is provided on the substrate surface. The method can be used to fabricate or modify microfluidic systems.

Abstract: A method for forming microstructures in substrates simultaneously and altering their chemical character. The method involves exposing a surface portion of a substrate to laser light, which is strong enough to cause ablation of the substrate. The ablation of the substrate is controlled to form microstructures therein, such as channels. The ablation is conducted under a chemical atmosphere, which causes a change in the chemical functionality of the microstructures. The chemical atmosphere can be a gas, liquid or solid that is provided on the substrate surface. The method can be used to fabricate or modify microfluidic systems.