Abstract: Methods, systems, apparatus and computer program products for applying a non-metallic clip to a target package in an automated or semi-automated manner include: (a) directing a plurality of non-metallic clips, each respective clip having a unitary body with a crown and spaced apart first and second legs, to travel in a clip travel path having a forward direction that merges into a punch path; (b) punching a non-metallic clip in the punch path so that the first and second legs thereof span opposing sides of a trailing and/or leading edge portion of a target package; then (c) deforming the clip so that the leading edge portions of the legs reside proximate each other about the trailing and/or leading edge portion of the target package to thereby close the clip about the target package. The non-metallic clips can be provided as integral elastomeric clip magazines and devices with clip rails configured to hold the elastomeric clips are described.

Abstract: A two-stage oxidation/reduction process for preparing commercially valuable, color enhanced and stabilized low viscosity wet process phosphoric acid is provided which yields improved acid that can be concentrated to superphosphoric acid and/or converted to high quality liquid fertilizer by reaction with ammonia, all without reversion to black color or excessive sludge formation in the fertilizer. The preferred process involves initially oxidizing a starting black acid having a 58-72% P.sub.2 O.sub.5 concentration by addition of an oxidizing agent such as NH.sub.4 NO.sub.3 with heating and agitation until the oxidized acid exhibits an EMF of greater than about 700 mv as compared with a 600 mv standard; the oxidized acid is then subjected to a reduction step to lower the valence of metallic impurities, by aging and/or adding reducing agents such as ferrous iron compounds to the acid.