Abstract: A method includes: obtaining layout data representing a candidate device fabrication pattern; generating an embedding of the layout data; providing the embedding of the layout data as input to a deep learning model; obtaining, as an output of the deep learning model, a predicted fabricated structure formed using the candidate device fabrication pattern; and adjusting the layout data by backpropagation based on a gradient of a loss function representing a difference between the predicted fabricated structure and a target structure.