Abstract: A doped organic semiconductor is produced using the method of providing an organic semiconductor solution, contacting the organic semiconductor solution with CO2; and irradiating the organic semiconductor solution with ultraviolet light. A composition is described, the composition comprising an organic semiconductor; and a metal salt having the formula M+X? wherein X? is a monoanionic species; and wherein the ratio of M+ to X? in the hole transport material is less than about 1.00. An additional composition is described, the composition comprising an organic semiconductor; a metal salt having the formula M+X? wherein X? is a monoanionic species; and a metal carbonate; wherein the total metal content of the composition is approximately equal to the X? content of the composition.

Abstract: Described is an active layer having a first surface region and a bulk region, the active layer comprising a small molecule component and a polymer component, wherein the relative concentration of the small molecule component is lower in the first surface than in the bulk region. Also described is a method of producing a surface-modified active layer comprising the steps of providing a pristine active layer comprising a small molecule component and a polymer component; applying an adhesive to the exposed surface of the pristine active layer to produce an adhesive-bound active layer; and removing the adhesive from the adhesive-bound active layer, and a method of producing electrical energy from sunlight, such as sunlight deposited over bodies of water.