Abstract: Provided herein are methods, devices, systems, and computer readable medium for improving studies such as clinical trials and for improving clinical practice. The methods, devices, systems, and computer readable medium provided herein can be used to identify outlier data in a study, select data collection sites likely to produce high quality data, detect fraud, identify placebo responders, and/or identify likely responders to a therapy. The methods, devices, systems, and computer readable medium provided herein can also be used to optimize a test, for example, a neurocognitive battery, for maximum sensitivity.