Abstract: The disclosed method of operating an installation that comprises one or more long electrical conductors (exemplarily an electric utility, telecommunication system or pipeline) involves receiving and/or collecting substantially real time data representative of the time derivative of Earth's magnetic field (dB/dt) at a multiplicity of points within an appropriate geographic region, comparing the data (or data derived therefrom) to pre-determined critical values and, if indicated by the result of the comparison, changing the operating conditions of the installation. Use of the disclosed method can make possible system-protective action in the case of solar magnetic disturbances (SMD). Such disturbances in the past have caused black-outs and other undesirable conditions. In a preferred embodiment the installation operator can have available dB/dt "maps" of a multiplicity of spatial scales, ranging from an essentially local scale to a substantial continental one.

Abstract: Emission of characteristic electromagnetic radiation in the infrared, visible, or UV from excited particles, typically ions, molecules, or neutral atoms, desorbed from solid surfaces by an incident beam of low-momentum probe radiation has been observed. Disclosed is a method for characterizing solid surfaces based on the observed effect, with low-momentum probe radiation consisting of electrons or photons. Further disclosed is a method for controlling manufacturing processes that is also based on the observed effect. The latter method can, for instance, be advantageously applied in integrated circuit-, integrated optics-, and magnetic bubble device manufacture. Specific examples of applications of the method are registering of masks, control of a direct-writing processing beam, end-point detection in etching, and control of a processing beam for laser- or electron-beam annealing or ion implantation.