Abstract: An electrochemical reactor, including: a first magnetic field source; a second magnetic field source; and an electrochemical cell between the first magnetic field source and the second magnetic field source, the electrochemical cell comprising an anode and a cathode, wherein the anode and the cathode are in a channel configured to contain an electrolyte stream comprising an iron-containing feedstock, and wherein the anode and the cathode are configured to contact the electrolyte stream, and wherein the electrochemical reactor is configured to electrochemically reduce at least a portion of the iron-containing feedstock to iron metal at the cathode and in a magnetic field provided by the first magnetic field source, the second magnetic field source, or a combination thereof.

Abstract: An electrochemical reactor, including a channel for containing and directing flow of an electrolyte stream, wherein the electrolyte stream includes an electrolyte and an iron-containing feedstock; an anode and a cathode positioned in contact with the channel; and a source of a magnetic field positioned in proximity to the cathode, wherein the electrochemical reactor is configured to electrochemically reduce at least a portion of the iron-containing feedstock to iron metal at a surface of the cathode and in a magnetic field of the source, and wherein the at least a portion of the iron-containing feedstock is electrochemically reduced to the iron metal at a current efficiency of at least 0.75, wherein the current efficiency is a ratio of charge used for the reduction of the iron-containing feedstock to a total charge provided to the cathode.

Abstract: An electrochemical reactor comprising a source of a magnetic field positioned in proximity to a cathode and configured to generate a magnetic field; and an electrochemical cell comprising an anode and the cathode, and further comprising a catholyte channel configured to direct a catholyte stream comprising an iron-containing feedstock to the cathode; an anolyte channel configured to direct an anolyte stream comprising a metal chloride to the anode, wherein the catholyte channel and the anolyte channel are disposed between the cathode and the anode; and a separator disposed between the catholyte channel and the anolyte channel, wherein the electrochemical reactor is configured to electrochemically oxidize chloride anions to chlorine gas at a surface of the anode, and wherein the electrochemical reactor is further configured to electrochemically reduce the iron-containing feedstock to an iron particle comprising iron metal at the surface of the cathode and in the magnetic field.

Abstract: An iron-air battery including an iron electrode in contact with an anode current collector, wherein the iron electrode includes a plurality of channels; an oxygen reduction reaction electrode having a first surface facing the plurality of channels and an opposing second surface in contact with air; an oxygen evolution reaction electrode interdigitated with the plurality of channels of the iron electrode, wherein at least a portion of the oxygen evolution reaction electrode is disposed within the plurality of channels in a direction perpendicular to a plane of the oxygen reduction reaction electrode; and an electrolyte in contact with the iron electrode, the first surface of the oxygen reduction reaction electrode, the plurality of channels, and the oxygen evolution reaction electrode.

Abstract: Drip irrigation emitters having low activation pressures, desirable flow rates, and are configured to clog less than existing emitters are provided. The disclosed emitters include membrane cavities that are devoid of a channel and a land to help advance fluid through the cavity, to an outlet, and to an outside environment. Instead, the membrane cavities have various shapes and configurations that, in conjunction with a depressed membrane, help to drive fluid out of the membrane cavity and to an outside environment. The shapes of the membrane cavities include a sinusoidal configuration, a cylindrical shape configuration, and a flat bottom configuration. Various features of such emitters, and methods of using the same, are also provided.

Abstract: Systems and methods for modeling ways to best design pressure-controlled drip irrigation emitters are provided. The systems and methods are designed to help reduce activation pressure while maintaining a substantially constant, desirable flow rate in an irrigation system. Various parameters that impact the activation pressure and the flow rate can be adjusted to assist in finding optimal designs. The parameters can at least include one or more of resistances in a flow path, resistances in a membrane cavity, a membrane, or placement of a membrane with respect to a membrane cavity. Optimal designs for such emitters based on the discloses systems and methods are provided, including at least one exemplary embodiment in which a length of a flow path is substantially reduced as compared to known emitters.

Abstract: Drip irrigation emitters having low activation pressures, desirable flow rates, and are configured to clog less than existing emitters are provided. The disclosed emitters include membrane cavities that are devoid of a channel and a land to help advance fluid through the cavity, to an outlet, and to an outside environment. Instead, the membrane cavities have various shapes and configurations that, in conjunction with a depressed membrane, help to drive fluid out of the membrane cavity and to an outside environment. The shapes of the membrane cavities include a sinusoidal configuration, a cylindrical shape configuration, and a flat bottom configuration. Various features of such emitters, and methods of using the same, are also provided.