Abstract: A system and method for reducing smog in an urban area includes an urban area having an urban surface. A smog atmospheric layer is located above the urban surface. A mixing atmospheric layer is located above the smog atmospheric layer. A plurality of turbines is located on the urban surface and moves a quantity of air between the smog atmospheric layer and the mixing atmospheric layer. A system and method for reducing smog in an urban area includes an urban area and a rural area adjacent to the urban area. An urban boundary demarcates the urban area and the rural area. A plurality of turbines is located within the rural area and/or the urban area, and moves a quantity of air between the urban area and the rural area.

Abstract: A wide area cosmogenic neutron sensor is used for detecting moisture within a measurement surface. A neutron detector is positioned on a stand structure holding the detector above a measurement surface. A moderator material and neutron shield are positioned around at least a portion of the neutron detector. The neutron shield substantially covers an entirety of a bottom of the neutron detector and is not positioned on a top side of the neutron detector. Wide area cosmogenic neutrons propagating from the measurement surface travel through an air space before arriving at the moderated neutron detector.

Abstract: A local area, thermal cosmogenic neutron sensor is used for detecting moisture within a measurement surface. A neutron detector is positioned on a stand structure holding the detector above a measurement surface. A neutron shield is positioned around at least a portion of the neutron detector. The neutron shield substantially covers lateral sides of the neutron detector and substantially an entirety of a top of the neutron detector and is not positioned on a bottom side of the neutron detector. Local area, thermal cosmogenic neutrons propagating from the measurement surface travel through an air space before arriving at the neutron detector.

Abstract: A local area cosmogenic neutron sensor is used for detecting moisture within a measurement surface. A neutron detector is positioned on a stand structure holding the detector above a measurement surface. A moderator material and neutron shield are positioned around at least a portion of the neutron detector. The neutron shield substantially covers lateral sides and an entirety of a top of the neutron detector and is not positioned on a bottom side of the neutron detector. A thermal neutron shield is positioned below the neutron detector and in a path of neutron travel between the measurement surface and the neutron detector to substantially block environmental thermal neutrons from reaching the neutron detector, which improves the signal-to-noise ratio and signal contrast of the local area cosmogenic neutron sensor.

Abstract: A wide area cosmogenic neutron sensor is used for detecting moisture within a measurement surface. A neutron detector is positioned on a stand structure holding the detector above a measurement surface. A moderator material and neutron shield are positioned around at least a portion of the neutron detector. The neutron shield substantially covers an entirety of a bottom of the neutron detector and is not positioned on a top side of the neutron detector. Wide area cosmogenic neutrons propagating from the measurement surface travel through an air space before arriving at the moderated neutron detector.

Abstract: A local area cosmogenic neutron sensor is used for detecting moisture within a measurement surface. A neutron detector is positioned on a stand structure holding the detector above a measurement surface. A moderator material and neutron shield are positioned around at least a portion of the neutron detector. The neutron shield substantially covers lateral sides and an entirety of a top of the neutron detector and is not positioned on a bottom side of the neutron detector. A thermal neutron shield is positioned below the neutron detector and in a path of neutron travel between the measurement surface and the neutron detector to substantially block environmental thermal neutrons from reaching the neutron detector, which improves the signal-to-noise ratio and signal contrast of the local area cosmogenic neutron sensor.

Abstract: A cosmogenic neutron sensor includes a hydrogen-sensitive neutron detector orientable above a measurement surface. A neutron shield is positionable on the hydrogen-sensitive neutron detector. The neutron shield is positioned to interact with at least a portion of cosmogenic neutrons propagating in a direction of the hydrogen-sensitive neutron detector.

Abstract: A system and method for reducing smog in an urban area includes an urban area having an urban surface. A smog atmospheric layer is located above the urban surface. A mixing atmospheric layer is located above the smog atmospheric layer. A plurality of turbines is located on the urban surface and moves a quantity of air between the smog atmospheric layer and the mixing atmospheric layer. A system and method for reducing smog in an urban area includes an urban area and a rural area adjacent to the urban area. An urban boundary demarcates the urban area and the rural area. A plurality of turbines is located within the rural area and/or the urban area, and moves a quantity of air between the urban area and the rural area.

Abstract: A moderated neutron detector includes a neutron detector having a first volume. A moderating enclosure is positioned around the neutron detector and encloses a second volume. The second volume is between 2 and 80 times larger than the first volume. A method for increased neutron detection includes the following steps: positioning a neutron detector within a moderating enclosure, wherein the neutron detector has a first volume, wherein the moderating enclosure encloses a second volume, and wherein the second volume is between 2 and 80 times larger than the first volume; increasing a quantity of neutrons impingent upon the neutron detector; and measuring the quantity of neutrons impinging upon the neutron detector.

Abstract: A moderated neutron detector includes a neutron detector having a first volume. A moderating enclosure is positioned around the neutron detector and encloses a second volume. The second volume is between 2 and 80 times larger than the first volume. A method for increased neutron detection includes the following steps: positioning a neutron detector within a moderating enclosure, wherein the neutron detector has a first volume, wherein the moderating enclosure encloses a second volume, and wherein the second volume is between 2 and 80 times larger than the first volume; increasing a quantity of neutrons impingent upon the neutron detector; and measuring the quantity of neutrons impinging upon the neutron detector.

Abstract: A cosmogenic neutron sensor includes a hydrogen-sensitive neutron detector orientable above a measurement surface. A neutron shield is positionable on the hydrogen-sensitive neutron detector. The neutron shield is positioned to interact with at least a portion of cosmogenic neutrons propagating in a direction of the hydrogen-sensitive neutron detector.

Abstract: The present invention is directed toward the determination of soil water content and the water equivalent depth of snow deposited on top of the ground. The apparatus for measuring soil water content consists of one or more cosmic-ray neutron detectors located above the soil surface. The detectors record neutrons in the thermal, epithermal or fast energy bands. Snow water equivalence is determined by using a thermal neutron detector and an epithermal or fast neutron detector. Neutron count rates for all three energy bands decrease monotonically with increasing soil water content. Epithermal and fast neutron count rates decrease monotonically with increased snow water equivalent depth, but thermal neutron count rates increase at first and then decrease with increasing snow cover.