Abstract: A method is disclosed for programming analog-valued weights in a non-volatile memory array using feedback-based estimation and adaptive pulse modulation. The method includes initializing a target weight, applying one or more programming pulses to a memory cell, estimating a weight state of the memory cell based on analog-to-digital conversion, determining a residual error between the estimated weight state and the target weight, and computing a subsequent programming pulse based on the residual error. The subsequent pulse may be adjusted by selecting a programming voltage from a quantized set of levels responsive to the recent weight response dynamics. The programming process may iterate until convergence may be achieved within a defined threshold. The technique supports precise control of conductance programming using closed-loop feedback and may be compatible with pulse-width, amplitude, and polarity modulation schemes.