Abstract: A token issuer and an authentication device provide an identity confirmation device. A token issuer is programmable by a central identity provider to issue certification tokens for use in e-commerce whereby transactions can be certified with suppliers without need for additional communication with a central server.

Abstract: In order to allow files structures at different locations to be synchronized, a folder tree descriptive of each set of folders is created and stored at a plurality of locations. On subsequent interconnection of the two locations a new tree is created for each location and the earliest of the old trees is used to determine which files, folders or paths of the two locations have been amended. This enables deletion or re-synchronization of files between the two locations even though files may have been worked on at different locations and at different times.

Abstract: In order to allow files structures at different locations to be synchronised, a folder tree descriptive of each set of folders is created and stored at a plurality of locations. On subsequent interconnection of the two locations a new tree is created for each location and the earliest of the old trees is used to determine which files, folders or paths of the two locations have been amended. This enables deletion or re-synchronisation of files between the two locations even although files may have been worked on at different locations and at different times.

Abstract: In a payment validation system, a mobile phone or other communications terminal associated with a particular user is used. A vending node communicates with a validation platform which either returns a telephone number to be displayed for the user to call or which calls the alleged users phone or terminal for confirmation.