Abstract: Methods, systems, and apparatus, including computer programs encoded on a computer storage medium, for generating a predicted surface model of a tissue region. In one aspect, a method comprises: obtaining a surface model that defines a surface of a tissue region in a subject at a first time point; generating a predicted surface model that defines a predicted surface of the tissue region in the subject at a second time point using a machine learning model, comprising: generating a model input to the machine learning model based on the surface model of the tissue region for first time point; and processing the model input using the machine learning model, in accordance with values of a set of machine learning model parameters, to generate a model output that specifies the predicted surface model of the tissue region in the subject at the second time point.