Abstract: A Q-switched gas laser apparatus with bivariate pulse equalization includes a gas laser, a sensor, and an electronic circuit. A Q-switch that switches the laser resonator between high-loss and low-loss states to generate a pulsed laser beam. The sensor obtains a measurement of the pulsed laser beam indicative of the laser pulse energy. The electronic circuitry operates the Q-switch to (a) repeatedly switch the laser resonator between the high-loss and low-loss states to set a repetition rate of laser pulses of the pulsed laser beam, (b) adjust a loss level of the low-loss state, based on the pulse energy measurement, to achieve a target laser pulse energy, and (c) adjust a duration of the low-loss state to achieve a target laser pulse duration. By adjusting both pulse energy and duration, uniform pulse energy and, if desired, uniform pulse duration are achieved over a wide range of repetition rates.

Abstract: A CO2 laser that generates laser-radiation in just one emission band of a CO2 gas-mixture has resonator mirrors that form an unstable resonator and at least one spectrally-selective element located on the optical axis of the resonator. The spectrally-selective element may be in the form of one or more protruding or recessed surfaces. Spectral-selectivity is enhanced by forming a stable resonator along the optical axis that includes the spectrally-selective element. The CO2 laser is tunable between emission bands by translating the spectrally-selective element along the optical axis.

Abstract: A CO2 laser that generates laser-radiation in just one emission band of a CO2 gas-mixture has resonator mirrors that form an unstable resonator and at least one spectrally-selective element located on the optical axis of the resonator. The spectrally-selective element may be in the form of one or more protruding or recessed surfaces. Spectral-selectivity is enhanced by forming a stable resonator along the optical axis that includes the spectrally-selective element. The CO2 laser is tunable between emission bands by translating the spectrally-selective element along the optical axis.

Abstract: A CO2 laser that generates laser-radiation in just one emission band of a CO2 gas-mixture has resonator mirrors that form an unstable resonator and at least one spectrally-selective element located on the optical axis of the resonator. The spectrally-selective element may be in the form of one or more protruding or recessed surfaces. Spectral-selectivity is enhanced by forming a stable resonator along the optical axis that includes the spectrally-selective element. The CO2 laser is tunable between emission bands by translating the spectrally-selective element along the optical axis.

Abstract: A CO2 laser that generates laser-radiation in just one emission band of a CO2 gas-mixture has resonator mirrors that form an unstable resonator and at least one spectrally-selective element located on the optical axis of the resonator. The spectrally-selective element may be in the form of one or more protruding or recessed surfaces. Spectral-selectivity is enhanced by forming a stable resonator along the optical axis that includes the spectrally-selective element. The CO2 laser is tunable between emission bands by translating the spectrally-selective element along the optical axis.

Abstract: A peptide having an ED50 of less than 500 nm, in particular 10 nM to an antibody which recognizes an epitope on an extracellular ?1 loop 2 or ?2 loop1 of a human adrenoceptor wherein the antibody's binding to the epitope results in an increase of ?-secretase activity, an increased release of ?-amyolid molecules and/or cellular dysfunction of cerebral blood vessel cells, glia cells or neurons, wherein the ED50 value is measured by bioassay.

Abstract: In order to maintain a constant laser output pulse power in a RF-energized, sealed-off, diffusion cooled, pulsed, CO2 gas-discharge laser, each laser output pulse is generated by train or burst of shorter RF pulses. When the time between laser output pulses becomes short enough that the power in one pulse would be reduced by gas-discharge heating effects of a previous pulse, power in the RF pulse trains is varied by varying the duration or duty cycle of pulses in the bursts, thereby keeping output-pulse power in the laser output pulses constant. RF pulses in any burst can have a different duration for tailoring the temporal shape of a corresponding laser-output pulse.

Abstract: A peptide having an ED50 of less than 500 nm, in particular 10 nM to an antibody which recognizes an epitope on an extracellular ?1 loop 2 or ?2 loop1 of a human adrenoceptor wherein the antibody's binding to the epitope results in an increase of ?-secretase activity, an increased release of ?-amyolid molecules and/or cellular dysfunction of cerebral blood vessel cells, glia cells or neurons, wherein the ED50 value is measured by bioassay.

Abstract: In order to maintain a constant laser output pulse power in a RF-energized, sealed-off, diffusion cooled, pulsed, CO2 gas-discharge laser, each laser output pulse is generated by train or burst of shorter RF pulses. When the time between laser output pulses becomes short enough that the power in one pulse would be reduced by gas-discharge heating effects of a previous pulse, power in the RF pulse trains is varied by varying the duration or duty cycle of pulses in the bursts, thereby keeping output-pulse power in the laser output pulses constant. RF pulses in any burst can have a different duration for tailoring the temporal shape of a corresponding laser-output pulse.

Abstract: A peptide having an ED50 of less than 500 nm, in particular 10 nM to an antibody which recognizes an epitope on an extracellular ?1 loop 2 or ?2 loop 1 of a human adrenoceptor wherein the antibody's binding to the epitope results in an increase of ?-secretase activity, an increased release of ?-amyolid molecules and/or cellular dysfunction of cerebral blood vessel cells, glia cells or neurons, wherein the ED50 value is measured by bioassay.

Abstract: A transmission electron microscope has a target body position on the electron optical axis of the microscope, and an electrically conductive body off the axis of the microscope. The microscope also has an electron source for producing an axial electron beam. In use, the beam impinges upon a target body located at the target body position. The microscope further has a system for simultaneously producing a separate off-axis electron beam. In use, the off-axis electron beam impinges on the electrically conductive body causing secondary electrons to be emitted therefrom. The electrically conductive body is located such that the emitted secondary electrons impinge on the target body to neutralise positive charge which may build up on the target body.

Abstract: A peptide having an ED50 of less than 500 nm, in particular 10 nM to an antibody which recognizes an epitope on an extracellular ?1 loop 2 or ?2 loop 1 of a human adrenoceptor wherein the antibody's binding to the epitope results in an increase of ?-secretase activity, an increased release of ?-amyolid molecules and/or cellular dysfunction of cerebral blood vessel cells, glia cells or neurons, wherein the ED50 value is measured by bioassay.

Abstract: The invention represents an improved method of measuring trenches on semiconductor wafers with optical spectroscopy. According to the described method, it is possible to characterize not only depth but also shape of the trench. The advancement is achieved by improved Effective Medium Approximation-based modeling of the optical response of trench structures.

Abstract: A transmission electron microscope has a target body position on the electron optical axis of the microscope, and an electrically conductive body off the axis of the microscope. The microscope also has an electron source for producing an axial electron beam. In use, the beam impinges upon a target body located at the target body position. The microscope further has a system for simultaneously producing a separate off-axis electron beam. In use, the off-axis electron beam impinges on the electrically conductive body causing secondary electrons to be emitted therefrom. The electrically conductive body is located such that the emitted secondary electrons impinge on the target body to neutralise positive charge which may build up on the target body.

Abstract: The invention represents an improved method of measuring trenches on semiconductor wafers with optical spectroscopy. According to the described method, it is possible to characterize not only depth but also shape of the trench. The advancement is achieved by improved Effective Medium Approximation-based modeling of the optical response of trench structures.

Abstract: Structures are characterized by exposing a sample to optical radiation, measuring a spectrum associated with the exposure, detecting at least one characteristic parameter in the measured spectrum, and computing at least one structural parameter based on the at least one characteristic parameter.

Abstract: A modular system for gas analysis has a first gas cell that receives and passes at least a portion of an infrared light beam through at least a portion of the first gas cell. A second gas cell disposed proximal to the first gas cell receives and passes at least a portion of the infrared light beam from the first gas cell through at least a portion of the second gas cell. At least a portion of the first gas cell and at least a portion of the second gas cell define a light path having an effective length. The system includes a means for adjusting the effective length of the light path to vary a property of the infrared light beam. Methods of making a variable effective length light path and methods of making a gas detector are also disclosed.

Abstract: The method measures the temperature, emissivity, and other properties of relatively smooth surfaces radiating thermal energy, and is especially adapted for monitoring semiconductor fabrication processes. Temperature is determined by relating measured radiance to the predictions of the Planck radiation law, using knowledge of the emissivity determined from an analysis of the polarization of the thermally emitted radiance. Additional information regarding the properties of thin films, such as thickness and composition, can be computed from the emissivity or the ratio of the emissivities measured at two independent polarizations. Because the data are obtained from the intrinsic thermal radiance, rather than from an extrinsic light source, the measurement can be performed when it is inconvenient or impossible to provide a light source for reflectance measurements.

Abstract: The composition, free carrier concentrations, and other properties of thin films and graded layers embedded in film stack structures are measured by the method of the invention, which is based upon the application of two novel algorithms to extract the composition of a measured layer independently of the confounding effects of additional layers, and which can be effected even when calibration samples are not available with the same layered structure as the samples to be measured. The method uses sample model-based analysis algorithms to extract the dielectric function of the layer to be measured, combined with model-based analysis to relate the composition of the layer to its dielectric function.

Abstract: A fault detection and classification system for wafer etching, tool cleaning, and other fabrication processes employs exhaust gas composition data from a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer in addition to machine-state and other process-state data. Process control may be initiated based upon the classification of a fault.