Abstract: Methods of forming a carbon fiber reinforced carbon foam are provided. Such a method may comprise heating a porous body composed of a solid material comprising covalently bound carbon atoms and heteroatoms and having a surface defining pores distributed throughout the solid material, in the presence of an added source of gaseous hydrocarbons. The heating generates free radicals in the porous body from the heteroatoms and induces reactions between the free radicals and the gaseous hydrocarbons to form covalently bound carbon nanofibers extending from the surface of the solid material and a network of entangled carbon microfibers within the pores the porous body, thereby forming a carbon fiber reinforced carbon foam. Carbon fiber reinforced carbon foams and ballistic barriers incorporating the foams are also provided.

Abstract: Methods of forming a carbon fiber reinforced carbon foam are provided. Such a method may comprise heating a porous body composed of a solid material comprising covalently bound carbon atoms and heteroatoms and having a surface defining pores distributed throughout the solid material, in the presence of an added source of gaseous hydrocarbons. The heating generates free radicals in the porous body from the heteroatoms and induces reactions between the free radicals and the gaseous hydrocarbons to form covalently bound carbon nanofibers extending from the surface of the solid material and a network of entangled carbon microfibers within the pores the porous body, thereby forming a carbon fiber reinforced carbon foam. Carbon fiber reinforced carbon foams and ballistic barriers incorporating the foams are also provided.

Abstract: Methods of forming a carbon fiber reinforced carbon foam are provided. Such a method may comprise heating a porous body composed of a solid material comprising covalently bound carbon atoms and heteroatoms and having a surface defining pores distributed throughout the solid material, in the presence of an added source of gaseous hydrocarbons. The heating generates free radicals in the porous body from the heteroatoms and induces reactions between the free radicals and the gaseous hydrocarbons to form covalently bound carbon nanofibers extending from the surface of the solid material and a network of entangled carbon microfibers within the pores the porous body, thereby forming a carbon fiber reinforced carbon foam. Carbon fiber reinforced carbon foams and ballistic barriers incorporating the foams are also provided.

Abstract: Methods of making self-expended lignofoams are provided. In embodiments, such a method comprises exposing a self-expanding lignofoam composition comprising raw lignin and a thermoplastic polymer to an elevated temperature for a period of time to soften the composition, desorb water from the raw lignin or induce at least some hydroxyl groups of the raw lignin to undergo dehydration reactions to generate water or both, vaporize the water, and generate pores throughout the softened composition. The method further comprises cooling the porous, softened composition to room temperature to provide the self-expanded lignofoam. The self-expanding lignofoam composition is free of an added plasticizer, an added lubricant, an added foaming agent, and an added blowing agent, and the thermoplastic polymer is not a starch, not a polyurethane, and not a polysiloxane. The resulting self-expanded lignofoams are also provided.

Abstract: A method of making a carbon foam comprises subjecting a precursor composition comprising an amount of at least partially decomposed lignin to a first pressure for a first time, optionally, while heating the precursor composition to a first temperature; heating the compressed precursor composition to a second temperature for a second period of time while subjecting the compressed precursor composition to a second pressure to further decompose the at least partially decomposed lignin and to generate pores within the compressed precursor composition, thereby providing a porous, decomposed precursor composition; and heating the porous, decomposed precursor composition to a third temperature for a third time to carbonize, and optionally, to graphitize, the porous, decomposed precursor composition to provide the carbon foam. Also provided are the carbon foams and composites made from the carbon foams.

Abstract: A method of making a carbon foam comprises subjecting a precursor composition comprising an amount of at least partially decomposed lignin to a first pressure for a first time, optionally, while heating the precursor composition to a first temperature; heating the compressed precursor composition to a second temperature for a second period of time while subjecting the compressed precursor composition to a second pressure to further decompose the at least partially decomposed lignin and to generate pores within the compressed precursor composition, thereby providing a porous, decomposed precursor composition; and heating the porous, decomposed precursor composition to a third temperature for a third time to carbonize, and optionally, to graphitize, the porous, decomposed precursor composition to provide the carbon foam. Also provided are the carbon foams and composites made from the carbon foams.

Abstract: Methods of making self-expended lignofoams are provided. In embodiments, such a method comprises exposing a self-expanding lignofoam composition comprising raw lignin and a thermoplastic polymer to an elevated temperature for a period of time to soften the composition, desorb water from the raw lignin or induce at least some hydroxyl groups of the raw lignin to undergo dehydration reactions to generate water or both, vaporize the water, and generate pores throughout the softened composition. The method further comprises cooling the porous, softened composition to room temperature to provide the self-expanded lignofoam. The self-expanding lignofoam composition is free of an added plasticizer, an added lubricant, an added foaming agent, and an added blowing agent, and the thermoplastic polymer is not a starch, not a polyurethane, and not a polysiloxane. The resulting self-expanded lignofoams are also provided.

Abstract: A method of synthesizing a graphene-based material comprises exposing graphene-encapsulated metal nanoparticles, each nanoparticle comprising a graphene shell surrounding a metal core, to a cracking and welding gas composition under conditions sufficient to crack graphene shells and to reconstruct cracked graphene shells to form the graphene-based material.

Abstract: A method of making a carbon foam comprises subjecting a precursor composition comprising an amount of at least partially decomposed lignin to a first pressure for a first time, optionally, while heating the precursor composition to a first temperature; heating the compressed precursor composition to a second temperature for a second period of time while subjecting the compressed precursor composition to a second pressure to further decompose the at least partially decomposed lignin and to generate pores within the compressed precursor composition, thereby providing a porous, decomposed precursor composition; and heating the porous, decomposed precursor composition to a third temperature for a third time to carbonize, and optionally, to graphitize, the porous, decomposed precursor composition to provide the carbon foam. Also provided are the carbon foams and composites made from the carbon foams.

Abstract: A method of synthesizing a graphene-based material comprises exposing graphene-encapsulated metal nanoparticles, each nanoparticle comprising a graphene shell surrounding a metal core, to a cracking and welding gas composition under conditions sufficient to crack graphene shells and to reconstruct cracked graphene shells to form the graphene-based material.

Abstract: The present invention provides novel systems, methods, and processes for producing and synthesizing, through cost-effective thermal processes, highly active and stable carbide-based nano-structured catalysts and compositions that can be used in dry reforming of methane, natural gas, and biogas, for example, to synthesis gas (syngas). The invention provides for using carbon-containing raw materials for synthesizing and producing carbon-encapsulated metal-core nanoparticles such as nickel-based, tungsten-based, and molybdenum-based nano-structured catalysts that can be used in dry reforming gas to syngas.

Abstract: Processes, methods, and compositions for synthesizing carbon-based materials are provided. The method of synthesizing carbon-based materials includes providing precursors, forming carbon-encapsulated metal structures from the precursors, and forming nano-shell structure-based graphene materials from the carbon-encapsulated metal structures. The precursors are formed from a biomass and a catalyst, and may be pretreated prior to the forming of the carbon-encapsulated metal structures.

Abstract: The presently-disclosed subject matter includes methods for producing liquid hydrocarbons from syngas. In some embodiments the syngas is obtained from biomass and/or comprises a relatively high amount of nitrogen and/or carbon dioxide. In some embodiments the present methods can convert syngas into liquid hydrocarbons through a one-stage process. Also provided are catalysts for producing liquid hydrocarbons from syngas, wherein the catalysts include a base material, a transition metal, and a promoter. In some embodiments the base material includes a zeolite-iron material or a cobalt-molybdenum carbide material. In still further embodiments the promoter can include an alkali metal.

Abstract: The presently-disclosed subject matter includes methods for producing liquid hydrocarbons from syngas. In some embodiments the syngas is obtained from biomass and/or comprises a relatively high amount of nitrogen and/or carbon dioxide. In some embodiments the present methods can convert syngas into liquid hydrocarbons through a one-stage process. Also provided are catalysts for producing liquid hydrocarbons from syngas, wherein the catalysts include a base material, a transition metal, and a promoter. In some embodiments the base material includes a zeolite-iron material or a cobalt-molybdenum carbide material. In still further embodiments the promoter can include an alkali metal.