Abstract: Ambiguous stack references in low level software instructions can be resolved when raising a representation of low level software instructions, such as native code. The number of parameters passed to a function can be determined by heuristics, including direct call and indirect call heuristics. Indirect call heuristics can include dataflow-to-target-function, dataflow-to-target-type, import name, and cleanup instructions heuristics. A control flow heuristic can use an alternating direction propagation of seed points to determine the stack height at basic block boundaries. Interpolation can be used within the basic blocks as needed. The raised representation can be used for static analysis of the low level software instructions.