Abstract: A method for switching the direction of polarization in a relatively small domain in a thin-film ferroelectric material whose direction of polarization is oriented normal to the surface of the material involves a step of moving an electrically-chargeable tip into contact with the surface of the ferroelectric material so that the direction of polarization in a region adjacent the tip becomes oriented in a preselected direction relative to the surface of the ferroelectric material. The tip is then pressed against the surface of the ferroelectric material so that the direction of polarization of the ferroelectric material within the area of the ferroelectric material in contact with the tip is reversed under the combined effect of the compressive influence of the tip and electric bias.

Abstract: A tunneling element includes a thin film layer of ferroelectric material and a pair of dissimilar electrically-conductive layers disposed on opposite sides of the ferroelectric layer. Because of the dissimilarity in composition or construction between the electrically-conductive layers, the electron transport behavior of the electrically-conductive layers is polarization dependent when the tunneling element is below the Curie temperature of the layer of ferroelectric material. The element can be used as a basis of compact 1R type non-volatile random access memory (RAM). The advantages include extremely simple architecture, ultimate scalability and fast access times generic for all ferroelectric memories.

Abstract: Scanning probe techniques based on the measurement of impedance spectroscopy using a conductive an SPM tip is provided and applied to the study of local transport properties, especially at a grain boundary. The contributions of the grain boundaries and tip-surface interaction can be distinguished based on the analysis of the equivalent circuit. The technique is applicable for both the spatially resolved study of transport mechanisms of polycrystalline semiconductors and the tip-surface contact quality. A piezoresponse force microscopy technique yields quantitative information about local non-linear dielectric properties and higher order electromechanical coupled of ferroelectrics.

Abstract: A scanning probe detects phase changes of a cantilevered tip proximate to a sample, the oscillations of the cantilevered tip are induced by a lateral bias applied to the sample to quantify the local impedance of the interface normal to the surface of the sample. An ac voltage having a frequency is applied to the sample. The sample is placed at a fixed distance from the cantilevered tip and a phase angle of the cantilevered tip is measured. The position of the cantilevered tip is changed relative to the sample and another phase angle is measured. A phase shift of the deflection of the cantilevered tip is determined based on the phase angles. The impedance of the grain boundary, specifically interface capacitance and resistance, is calculated based on the phase shift and the frequency of the ac voltage. Magnetic properties are measured by applying a dc bias to the tip that cancels electrostatic forces, thereby providing direct measurement of magnetic forces.