Abstract: In an embodiment an X-ray apparatus includes at least one of an X-ray source configured for generating X-rays or an X-ray detector configured for detecting X-rays, a housing in which the at least one of the X-ray source or the X-ray detector is located, the housing having an opening and a window covering the opening, wherein the window is configured to be passed by the X-rays, wherein the window comprises a transmission layer, and wherein the transmission layer is a carbon layer of glassy carbon.

Abstract: In an embodiment a radiation window for a radiation detector or a radiation source includes a window element and a first protection film, wherein the first protection film at least partially covers a first main surface of the window element facing away from the detector or the radiation source, wherein the first protection film increases a robustness of the window element, wherein the window element is configured to sustain a pressure difference of at least 1 atm, and wherein a ratio between a Young's modulus and an indentation modulus of the window element is between 0.5 and 2.

Abstract: In an embodiment a radiation window for a radiation detector or a radiation source includes a window element and a first protection film, wherein the first protection film at least partially covers a first main surface of the window element facing away from the detector or the radiation source, wherein the first protection film increases a robustness of the window element, wherein the window element is configured to sustain a pressure difference of at least 1 atm, and wherein a ratio between a Young's modulus and an indentation modulus of the window element is between 0.5 and 2.

Abstract: In an embodiment an X-ray apparatus includes at least one of an X-ray source configured for generating X-rays or an X-ray detector configured for detecting X-rays, a housing in which the at least one of the X-ray source or the X-ray detector is located, the housing having an opening and a window covering the opening, wherein the window is configured to be passed by the X-rays, wherein the window comprises a transmission layer, and wherein the transmission layer is a carbon layer of glassy carbon.

Abstract: In an embodiment an ionization detector includes a gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) configured to emit low-energy electrons, a sample chamber configured for at least one gas to be detected, the sample chamber being adjacent to the GIS-EE and a measuring unit configured to detect and/or select charged particles, wherein the charged particles are due to the emitted electrons and/or comprise the emitted electrons.

Abstract: In an embodiment a reactor includes an electron source having a first gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) and configured to inject electrons into a fluid and a transportation system for the fluid configured to adjust a velocity of the fluid when passing the electron source, wherein the electron source is configured to provide the electrons to be injected into the fluid in an interior of the electron source and distant from the fluid, wherein the injected electrons are to initiate at least one chemical reaction in the fluid, wherein, when reaching the fluid, at least part of the injected electrons has a kinetic energy of at most 50 eV, wherein the electrons are propagatable only in solid matter from the interior until emission into the fluid, and wherein the GIS-EE includes an electrically conductive substrate, a transfer layer of a material with a band gap of at least 4 eV on the substrate, a gate electrode of a further electrically conductive material directly on the transfer layer,

Abstract: In an embodiment an ionization detector includes a gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) configured to emit low-energy electrons, a sample chamber configured for at least one gas to be detected, the sample chamber being adjacent to the GIS-EE and a measuring unit configured to detect and/or select charged particles, wherein the charged particles are due to the emitted electrons and/or comprise the emitted electrons.