Abstract: Substrates such as wafers often have surface or other imperfections that can create gaps when the wafers are solder bonded together. Such substrates can be more effectively bonded together by subjecting an intervening solder layer to an electrostatic force that causes the solder layer to be pulled to fill at least some of any gaps that may exist between the substrates. When the solder cools, an improved solder bond is formed.

Abstract: An analyte detector including a device having a surface, wherein the device is capable of detecting a charge adjacent to the surface. The surface includes a plurality of molecules bonded thereto, wherein the molecules have a structure (I): where R is a ligand bonded to the surface of the device and R1 is a spacer having 5 to 50 carbon atoms. The charge adjacent to the surface is created by the anionic complex of structure (I), and the number of anionic complex of structure (I) is dependent on the concentration of the analyte of interest. Methods for detecting an analyte are also disclosed, as well as systems using such analyte detectors.