Abstract: An optical transformer includes: an optomechanical member configured: to receive incident light; and to produce primary light from the incident light including an initial propagation that includes a nonlinear scan; and a lens configured: to receive the primary light from the optomechanical member; to linearize the nonlinear scan; and to produce secondary light including a final propagation that comprises a linear scan, such that the optical transformer is configured to transform the nonlinear scan of the primary light to the linear scan of the secondary light.

Abstract: Multiple frequency sources are used to apply a time varying signal to a scanning tunneling microscope and a current or voltage passing between the electrodes of the microscope is measured by a microwave spectrum/network analyzer which detects simultaneously at the multiple input frequencies and combinations thereof. This permits multiple substances to be monitored simultaneously. By choosing appropriate frequencies of input signals to be mixed or combined before application to the sample, it is possible to measure at a difference frequency which may improve signal to noise ratio and possible to match generating and reaction potentials and relaxation times to render detection possible. When applied to an array of Coulomb blockade devices used as a current standard, accuracy of the standard can be tested and the signal-to-noise ratio can be improved in the measurements, or the thresholds of the devices can be detected.