Abstract: A conductive surface layer, for example to form an electrode. For piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and ferroelectric components, as well as for piezoceramic components, the layer is formed of at least one electrically conductive hard product of at least one of the metals of at least the groups III to VIII of the periodic table of the elements.

Abstract: A pair of contacts are mounted on structural members. Each contact includes body made of conductive metal selected from the group consisting of titanium and zirconium. At least one of the contact body surfaces has a layer of titanium nitride or zirconium nitride in intimate and direct contact with the metallic surface of the body.

Abstract: The invention relates to a structural member made from a metallic material aving an upper surface exposed to dangers of electric charge accumulations during operation in an apparatus such as a high vacuum apparatus operating with a charge carrying beam wherein the upper surface is formed with a conductive or semiconductive compound of the metallic material which is also present in the body of the structural member and is in electrical contact with the body of the structural member, thereby preventing undesirable charge accumulation on the surface.

Abstract: An arrangement relating to the prevention of the alteration of the primary beam by unwanted particles, such as sputter products, charged ions and electrons and their secondary processes, and to the resulting local improvement in the operational vacuum in electron-beam devices, ion-beam devices and in electron-energy analyzers and ion-mass analyzers using only three-dimensional metallic microstructures known as particle traps. Substantially, all the flat parts of the components of the instrument seen by the beams, such as electrodes, diaphragms, screening plates, housing walls and the like, consist of a metal having a low atomization rate and a very low desorption rate, such as titanium or zirconium or similar substances and their alloys. Apertures of less than 0.

Abstract: An arrangement relating to the prevention of the alteration of the primary eam by unwanted particles, such as sputter products, charged ions and electrons and their secondary processes, and to the resulting local improvement in the operational vacuum in electron-beam devices, ion-beam devices and in electron-energy analyzers and ion-mass analyzers using only three-dimensional metallic microstructures known as particle traps. Substantially all the flat parts of the components of the instrument seen by the beams, such as electrodes, diaphragms, screening plates, housing walls and the like, consist of a metal having a low atomization rate and a very low desorption rate, such as titanium or zirconium or similar substances and their alloys. Apertures of less than 0.