Abstract: A method and apparatus for determining contents of a conduit containing at least one fluid is described. The conduit may be at least partially defined by at least one wall portion. The wall portion may be cooled. After cooling said, the temperature at least one temperature sensor located adjacent to the wall portion may be measured. A characteristic of said contents is determined based on said measured temperature at the or each temperature sensor.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for determining contents of a conduit containing at least one fluid is described. The conduit may be at least partially defined by at least one wall portion. The wall portion may be cooled. After cooling said, the temperature at least one temperature sensor located adjacent to the wall portion may be measured. A characteristic of said contents is determined based on said measured temperature at the or each temperature sensor.

Abstract: A direct-write apparatus and end use device for selective separation of at least one layer of material from another layer of material at the interface between them using a beam of electromagnetic radiation from an ultrashort pulse source is disclosed.

Abstract: A direct-write method, apparatus and end use device for selective separation of at least one layer of material from another layer of material at the interface between them using a beam of electromagnetic radiation from an ultrashort pulse source is disclosed.

Abstract: A direct-write method, apparatus and end use device for selective separation of at least one layer of material from another layer of material at the interface between them using a beam of electromagnetic radiation from an ultrashort pulse source is disclosed.

Abstract: The present invention relates to thermal reactions performed at rapid transient temperatures, and a furnace (1) able to perform such reactions. The method and the furnace may suitably be applied to perform reactions between reactants where significant losses normally occur at certain transient temperatures or temperature ranges. One practical application of the present invention relates to a carbothermic method for producing Refractory Hard Metal powders, such as borides, nitrides and carbides, and a furnace designed for the performance of the method. In accordance with this method Refractory Hard Metal powders, such as boride powders can be produced with reduced loss of reactants such as C and B2O3. This can be achieved by rapid heating of the mixture containing the reactants in a critical temperature range.