Abstract: Provided is an imaging element including a photoelectric conversion unit formed by stacking a first electrode, a photoelectric conversion layer and a second electrode. The photoelectric conversion unit further includes a charge storage electrode which is disposed to be spaced apart from the first electrode and disposed opposite to the photoelectric conversion layer via an insulating layer. The photoelectric conversion unit is formed of N number of photoelectric conversion unit segments, and the same applies to the photoelectric conversion layer, the insulating layer and the charge storage electrode. An nth photoelectric conversion unit segment is formed of an nth charge storage electrode segment, an nth insulating layer segment and an nth photoelectric conversion layer segment. As n increases, the nth photoelectric conversion unit segment is located farther from the first electrode. A thickness of the insulating layer segment gradually changes from a first to Nth photoelectric conversion unit segment.

Abstract: Light from a light source 10 is linearly polarized by a polarizer 11. Then it propagates via a half-mirror 12 almost parallel to the normal to a reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 and falls on the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13. The reflected light reflected by the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 is received by a detector 15 via the half-mirror 12 and an analyzer 14. In this state, the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 is rotated about an axis almost parallel to the normal to the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 and an angle (extinction angle) at which the output signal of detector 15 reaches minimum is measured. Then, the gap of the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 is detected based on the measured extinction angle.

Abstract: An apparatus for detecting a pretilt angle is comprised of a light source 1, a polarizer 2, a liquid-crystal cell 3, a quarter-wave plate 4, an analyzer 5, a photodetector 6, and a processing device. The processing device receives from the photodetector transmitted light intensities of light that is transmitted through the liquid-crystal cell 3 at a plurality of light incident angles. The processing device calculates Stokes parameters corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles based upon the transmitted light intensity corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles. Furthermore, an apparent retardation corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles is determined based upon the Stokes parameters corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles. The pretilt angle of the liquid-crystal cell 3 is determined based upon the determined apparent retardation corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles.

Abstract: Light from a light source 10 is linearly polarized by a polarizer 11. Then it propagates via a half-mirror 12 almost parallel to the normal to a reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 and falls on the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13. The reflected light reflected by the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 is received by a detector 15 via the half-mirror 12 and an analyzer 14. In this state, the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 is rotated about an axis almost parallel to the normal to the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 and an angle (extinction angle) at which the output signal of detector 15 reaches minimum is measured. Then, the gap of the reflective liquid-crystal panel 13 is detected based on the measured extinction angle.

Abstract: An apparatus for detecting a pretilt angle is comprised of a light source 1, a polarizer 2, a liquid-crystal cell 3, a quarter-wave plate 4, an analyzer 5, a photodetector 6, and a processing device. The processing device receives from the photodetector transmitted light intensities of light that is transmitted through the liquid-crystal cell 3 at a plurality of light incident angles. The processing device calculates Stokes parameters corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles based upon the transmitted light intensity corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles. Furthermore, an apparent retardation corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles is determined based upon the Stokes parameters corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles. The pretilt angle of the liquid-crystal cell 3 is determined based upon the determined apparent retardation corresponding to the plurality of light incident angles.

Abstract: A polarizing plate 4 is disposed to polarize light parallel to the X axis of liquid crystal display 3, which may be optionally rotated to a position where the intensity of a light that transmits the liquid crystal display 3 takes an extreme value (maximum or minimum) and an output Ix using a photodetector 6 is measured. The polarizing plate 4 is then disposed to polarize light parallel to the Y axis to thereby measure an output Iy using the photodetector 6. The polarizing plate 4 is then disposed to polarize the light in the direction inclined by 45 degrees between the X and Y axes to thereby measure an output I45 using the photodetector 6. A quarter wavelength plate 5 optionally may be disposed between the polarizing plate 4 and the liquid display 3 such that its axial direction is inclined by 45 degrees from the polarizing direction of the polarizing plate 4 while disposing the polarizing plate 4 so as to polarize light at 45 degrees from both the X and Y axes.

Abstract: A method of determining a parameter of a liquid crystal cell is provided in which parameters, such as the thickness of the liquid crystal layer and the angle of the twist of liquid crystal molecule orientation in the liquid crystal cell, are accurately determined in a short time with a simple apparatus. Light from a light source 1 is transmitted through a polarizing plate 2 and incident to a liquid crystal cell 3. The light is transmitted by a polarizing plate 4 and the intensity of the transmitted light is measured by a photodetector 6.

Abstract: A device for optically detecting a chemical change of fluid comprises a prism placed in fluid to be tested and a layer of color indication material formed on a surface of the prism to thereby detect a chemical change of fluid by means of a transmitted light and a reflected light in the prism.

Abstract: A device for detecting an electrical abnormality in an electrical device filled with insulating gas. A surface on a light reflecting prism placed within the electrical device carries a color indicator material. The color indicator material changes color when acidic gas is present. This gas is formed when an electrical abnormality such as a short circuit occurs in the presence of the insulator gas. A light source provides light to the prism which reflects light back having a color which varies according to the color of the color indicator material. The color of the reflected light is analyzed to determine if an electrical abnormality is present.