Abstract: Described herein are solid acid catalysts and the methods for catalytically preparing ?,?-unsaturated carboxylic acids and/or esters thereof. In one aspect, a zeolite catalyst may be used. The catalyst may, in certain embodiments, be modified to improve the selectivity and/or conversion of a reaction. For instance, a catalyst may be modified by ion exchange to achieve a desirable acidity profile in order to achieve high level of conversion of reactants and selectivity for desirable products of the catalytic reaction. In another aspect, a variety of feed stocks (e.g., starting compositions) may be used including an ?-hydroxycarboxylic acid, an ?-hydroxycarboxylic acid ester, a ?-hydroxycarboxylic acid, a ?-hydroxycarboxylic acid ester, cyclic esters thereof (e.g., lactide), and combinations thereof.

Abstract: Described herein are solid acid catalysts and the methods for catalytically preparing ?,?-unsaturated carboxylic acids and/or esters thereof. In one aspect, a zeolite catalyst may be used. The catalyst may, in certain embodiments, be modified to improve the selectivity and/or conversion of a reaction. For instance, a catalyst may be modified by ion exchange to achieve a desirable acidity profile in order to achieve high level of conversion of reactants and selectivity for desirable products of the catalytic reaction. In another aspect, a variety of feed stocks (e.g., starting compositions) may be used including an ?-hydroxycarboxylic acid, an ?-hydroxycarboxylic acid ester, a ?-hydroxycarboxylic acid, a ?-hydroxycarboxylic acid ester, cyclic esters thereof (e.g., lactide), and combinations thereof.