N-TYPE POLYMER BASED ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICE FOR DIRECT ENZYMATIC METABOLITE SENSING AND METHODS OF MAKING AND USING
N-type polymer based electrochemical devices include one or more source electrodes, one or more drain electrodes, one or more channels, a gate electrode, and an electrolyte solution are disclosed. The channels include one or more n-type polymers and one or more enzymes. The gate electrode includes one or more n-type polymers and one or more enzymes. The source and the drain electrodes are electrically connected by the corresponding channel. The electrolyte solution contains one or more metabolites capable of reacting with the one or more enzymes in the channel and the gate electrode and is in electrical contact with the channel and the gate electrode. Saturation current that flows through the channel increases when the metabolites react with the enzymes to produce electrons, which are directly transferred to the n-type polymers at the gate electrode and the channel. Methods of making and using the n-type electrochemical device are also disclosed.
This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/618,795 filed Jan. 18, 2017, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
FIELD OF THE INVENTIONThe invention is generally directed to n-type polymer based electrochemical device for metabolite sensing. Specifically, the present invention is directed to n-type polymer based accumulation mode organic electrochemical transistors for direct metabolites sensing.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONEnzyme-based electrocatalysis has gained significant interest for the development of biosensors (Sekretaryova, et al., Biotechnol. Adv., 34:177-197 (2016)). Biosensors occupy a significant market in healthcare industry with a yearly US $13 billion annual turnover (Pappa, et al., Trends in Biotechnology, 36(1):45-59 (2017)). The inherent substrate specificity and catalytic activity of enzymes (oxidoreductases) coupled with their ability to undergo electronic communication with the sensing electrode have stimulated their widespread application in amperometric biosensors, predominantly for the detection of physiologically relevant metabolites such as glucose (Jiang and Zhao, Enzyme-based Electrochemical Biosensors, in Biosensors, P. A. Serra, Ed.: InTech (2010)).
The flagship figure of the modern biosensors is without a doubt glucose sensors, representing 85% of the total biosensor market (Gifford, et al., ChemPhysChem, 14(10):2032-2044 (2013); Witkowska, et al., Analytical Chemistry, 88(23):11271-11282 (2016)). This is due to the crucial role of glucose in cellular machinery: glucose is the primary source of energy used for performing various cell functions such as conduction of neurons and active transport as well as synthesis of biochemical substances. Monitoring glucose levels in bodily fluids is therefore crucial for early diagnosis of a variety of diseases, in particular of diabetes, a pandemic disorder related to abnormal levels of glucose build up in the bloodstream (Wang, et al., Chemical Reviews, 108(2):814-825 (2008); Heller, et al., Chemical Reviews, 108(7):2482-2505 (2008)). Today, the majority of glucose sensors are based on the enzyme, glucose oxidase, due to its high selectivity and excellent catalytic activity towards glucose (Mulchandani and Rogers, Principles of Enzyme Biosensors, in Enzyme and Microbial Biosensors: Techniques and Protocols, Humana Press, Ed.: Totowa, N.J. (1998)). Glucose oxidase transforms glucose via an electrochemical reaction through an electron transfer process while it is electrochemically regenerated by ambient oxygen, generating hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). First generation of glucose biosensors detect this byproduct, H2O2, and correlate it to the amount of glucose. In order to improve selectivity, recent sensors have been designed such that they either involve an electron transfer mediator which replaces the co-substrate oxygen (therefore inhibits the H2O2 production) or an electronic transducer which can electronically wire the enzyme to its surface (direct detection of glucose) (Freire, et al., Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, 14:230-243 (2003); Wu, et al., Microchimica Acta, 159(1):1-17 (2007); Zhang, et al., Analytical Sciences, 20(4):603-609 (2004); Zhu, et al., Analytical Chemistry, 87(1):230-249 (2015)).
An obvious prerequisite when it comes to engineering such bioelectrochemical devices is the electron transfer (ET) between the sensing electrode and the redox active sites of the enzyme. For most of the enzymes, efficient electrical communication with the electrode is largely restricted by the distance between the active sites (and/or the electron transport pathways within the enzyme) and the electrode surface (Turner, Chem. Soc. Rev., 42:3184-3196 (2013); Freire, et al., Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, 14:230-243 (2003)). This is more of an issue for flat, unstructured surfaces of traditional electrode materials, limiting intermolecular interactions. To mediate ET, a typical strategy has, therefore, been the inclusion of redox active molecules acting as electron relays in the sensor architecture—in a freely diffusing form or coupled to the electrode (Pappa, et al., Trends in Biotechnology, 36(1):45-59 (2017)).
A promising transducing element for sensitive and selective glucose sensing is organic mixed conductors (OMCs) (Inal, et al., Accounts of Chemical Research, 51(6):1368-1376 (2018)). OMCs are often conjugated polymers that support electronic charge transport along their backbones, while allowing for ionic transport through their bulk, with great potential to act as electron relays (Inal, et al., Nature Communications, 8:1767 (2017)). Alongside their inherent ability to undergo reversible electrochemical reactions (changes in their doping state upon ion exchange with an electrolye), their fuzzy/soft surfaces can aid in promoting interactions with proteins, thus inducing electronic communication with the catalytic sites of the enzymes (Pappa, et al., Trends in Biotechnology, 36(1):45-59 (2017); Thompson, et al., Macromol. Rapid Commun., 31:1293-1297 (2010); Kros, et al., Adv. Mater., 13:1555-1557 (2001); Simon, et al., Chemical Reviews, 116:13009-13041 (2016); Bartlett, et al., Analytical Chemistry, 65:1118-1119 (1993); Nien, et al., Electroanalysis, 20:635-642 (2008); Schuhmann, et al., Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 10:181-193 (1995)). In addition, the chemistry of conjugated polymers is tunable allowing for customized materials for biochemical sensing.
OMCs enable different modes of device operations such as electrochemical sensors and passive large-scale electrodes, aiming to include conjugated conducting polymers as bio-electronic transducers (Kissinger, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 132(4):1444-1444 (2010)). However, biological signals often need to be amplified and such sensors render miniaturization challenging, limiting the applicability of the materials in different environments such as in vivo. An enticing solution is the organic electrochemical transistor (OECT), an electrolyte gated transistor which utilizes conjugated polymers in the channel (Rivnay, et al., Nature Reviews Materials, 3:17086 (2018); Strakosas, et al., Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 132(15):41735 (2015)). In OECTs, a bias at the gate electrode injects ions from an aqueous electrolyte into the bulk of the material, resulting in a change in the conductivity of the channel. The device acts as a switch and an amplifier. The OECT can transduce ionic signals of biological origin into electronic ones, with particularly high amplification (Kergoat, et al., Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 402:1813-1826 (2012); Rivnay, et al., Nature Reviews Materials, 3:17086 (2018); Giovannitti, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 113:12017-12022 (2016)). The volumetric interactions of the electrolyte (dopant/dedopant) ions with the bulk of the OMC channel, leading to remarkable sensitivity for biotransduction (Rivnay, et al., Sci. Adv., 1:e1400251 (2015); Zhang, et al., Biosens. Bioelectron., 100:235-241 (2018); Liao, et al., Adv. Mater., 27:7493-7527 (2015)).
For glucose detection with OECTs, the strategy has been the functionalization of the gate electrode (made of inert metals or the conducting polymer poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with polystyrene sulfonate, PEDOT:PSS) with glucose oxidase/mediator and amplifying the glucose detection at the gate electrode by the PEDOT:PSS channel (Inal, et al., Nature Communications, 8(1):1767 (2017); Inal, et al., Advanced Materials, 26(44):7450-7455 (2014); Khodagholy, et al., Nature Communications, 4:2133 (2013); Rivnay, et al., Science Advances, 1(4):e1400251 (2015); Rivnay, et al., Advanced Materials, 25(48):7010-7014 (2013)). Moreover, side-chain engineering of the polymer structure has been successfully implemented to enhance biocompatibility, stability, and device performance (Du, et al., Chemistry of Materials, 30(17):6164-6172 (2018); Giovannitti, et al., Nature Communications, 7:13066 (2016); Giovannitti, et al., Advanced Functional Materials, 28(17):1706325 (2018); Giovannitti, et al., Chemistry of Materials, 30(9):2945-2953 (2018); Giovannitti, et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(43):12017-12022 (2016); Nielsen, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 138(32):10252-10259 (2016)). To date, the gold standard of biosensing with OECT lies on the p-type semiconductor poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) as active material. Due to their outstanding properties (i.e conductivity, stability, response time), PEDOT:PSS and its derivatives, have been employed in numerous applications including metabolite sensing (Braendlein, et at, Advanced Materials, 29(13):1605744 (2017); Pappa, et al., Advanced Healthcare Materials, 5(17):2295-2302 (2016); Wustoni, et al., Advanced Materials Interfaces, doi.org/10.1002/admi.201800928 (2018)), evaluating lipid bilayer formation (Zhang, et al., Advanced Functional Materials, 26(40):7304-7313 (2016); Zhang, et al., Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 6(19):5218-5227 (2018)) and neural recordings, both in vitro (Pas, et al., Advanced Biosystems, 2(1):1700164 (2018)) and in vivo (Khodagholy, et al., Nature Communications, 4:1575 (2013); Khodagholy, et al., Nature Neuroscience, 18:310 (2014)).
In the aforementioned OECTs, however, as in most electrochemical biosensors to date, direct ET has been rather sluggish, limiting their selectivity and speed. This can be overcome by the integration of ET mediators, albeit at the expense of complicating the sensor fabrication. Moreover, despite the high signal amplification provided by the OECT, PEDOT:PSS-based devices display the inherent disadvantage in that they operate in depletion mode (Rivnay, et al., Nature Reviews Materials, 3:17086 (2018)). In this mode, electrochemical dedoping of the p-type channel (that is, a decrease in its conductance) as a result of the applied gate potential or a biological event (such as the enzyme-based electrocatalysis) will switch the transistor off, wherein many factors other than the electrochemical reactions of interest could lead to a decrease in channel current (e.g. degradation over time and non-specific interactions with electrolyte components).
For biosensing, it is more advantageous to have an accumulation mode device (Inal, et al., Advanced Materials, 26:7450-7455 (2014)), which switches on upon the biorecognition event as in depletion mode sensors; a reduction in current over time, possibly due to degradation of the polymer, might intervene with the actual sensor output. Moreover, the depletion OECT being always on increases power consumption. While the inherent specificity and electrochemical reversibility of enzymes poise them as the biorecognition element of choice for a wide range of metabolites, challenges associated with their facile integration and efficient communication with electrodes remain With the notable exception of today's market praised success story in glucose biosensors, enzyme-based devices, including OECTs, are still limited in their adaptation into different geometries and form factors and for applications beyond in vitro platforms.
There remains a need for conjugated polymers based accumulation mode electrochemical devices for metabolite sensing that are greatly simplified and with improved performance such as high sensitivity, wide dynamic range, tunable sensitivity according to the analyte range of choice (blood, saliva, sweat, and tears), good selectivity, and improved operational stability and shelf life.
It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide simple n-type polymers based accumulation mode electrochemical devices with improved performance.
It is another object of the present invention to provide methods of making the simple n-type polymers based accumulation mode electrochemical devices with improved performance.
It is yet another object of the present invention to provide methods of using the simple n-type polymers based accumulation mode electrochemical devices with improved performance.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONSimple n-type polymer based accumulation mode electrochemical devices for metabolite sensing with improved performance, methods of making and using thereof, are provided.
The n-type polymer based electrochemical devices include one or more source electrodes, one or more drain electrodes, one or more channels, a gate electrode, and an electrolyte solution. The channels include the following: (a) one or more n-type polymers and (b) one or more enzymes. The gate electrode includes the following: (a) one or more n-type polymers and (b) one or more enzymes. The source electrode and the drain electrode are electrically connected by the corresponding channel. The electrolyte solution contains one or more metabolites capable of reacting with the one or more enzymes at the channel and the gate electrode. In one preferred embodiment, the enzyme is GOx and the metabolite is glucose. In another preferred embodiment, the enzyme is LOx and the metabolite is lactate. The electrolyte solution is in electrical contact with the channels and the gate electrode. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device contains a plurality of independently addressable source and drain electrodes, a common gate electrode, and corresponding channels, wherein the corresponding channels contain different enzymes.
A gate voltage (VG) is applied to the electrochemical device and a source-drain current (ID) is monitored. The ID increases when the metabolites react with the enzymes to produce electrons; the electrons are directly transferred to the n-type polymers at the gate electrode and the channel, increasing the conductivity of the polymers.
The structure of the n-type polymer facilitates interactions of the enzyme with the polymer, and allows good electrical contact between the enzyme and the polymer. This way, the electrons generated from the enzymatic reaction are transferred directly from the redox center to the polymer backbone. In some preferred embodiments the n-type polymer is naphthalene-1,4,5,8-tetracarboxylic-diimide-bithiophene (NDI-T2) polymer with 90% glycol chain percentage (P90).
The electrochemical device acts as both the amplifier and the signal transducer together with the properties of the n-type polymers lead to greatly improved sensing performance.
Also provided are methods of making n-type polymer based electrochemical devices, which includes one or more source electrodes, one or more drain electrodes, one or more channels, a gate electrode, and an electrolyte solution. The channel includes the following: (a) one or more n-type polymers and (b) one or more enzymes. The gate electrode includes the following: (a) one or more n-type polymers and (b) one or more enzymes. The electrochemical device is made by: (1) placing a source electrode and a drain electrode apart from each other; (2) electrically connecting the source and the drain electrodes with a channel containing one or more polymers; (3) placing a gate electrode apart from the source, the drain, and the channel; (4) contacting the gate electrode with one or more n-type polymer; (5) contacting the channel and the gate electrode with one or more enzymes; (6) contacting the channel and the gate electrode with an electrolyte solution contain one or more metabolites/substrate reactive with the one or more enzymes. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device contains a plurality of independently addressable source and drain electrodes, a common gate electrode, and corresponding channels, wherein the corresponding channels contain different enzymes. In a preferred embodiment, the dimension of the electrochemical device is between 1000 and 1000000 μm2. In some embodiments, the dimension of the channel is 1000 μm2 and the gate electrode is 250000 μm2. In one embodiment, the channel and gate each has a dimension of 100 μm2.
The n-type polymer based electrochemical devices disclosed herein can be utilized as an in vivo sensing device for measuring metabolites such as glucose and/or lactate from the blood stream. Such in vivo electrochemical sensing devices may be utilized as an implanted device for continuously monitoring a single metabolite or multiple metabolites simultaneously, wherein the metabolites are derived from the organism. In another embodiment, the electrochemical device can be utilized in vitro as portable devices and/or wearable electronics that measure a single metabolite or multiple metabolites that react with the enzymes, including, but are not limited to, glucose and lactate.
As used herein, the term “alkylene glycol” or “glycol” refers to ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, or copolymers of ethylene oxide or propylene oxide. The terms “alkylene glycol” or “glycol” are used interchangeably throughout the instant disclosure.
As used herein, the term “channel” refers to the electrical connection established between the source and the drain electrodes by the n-type polymer.
As used herein, the term “direct electron transfer” means the process of transferring electrons directly from an enzyme or a compound to an electron acceptor such as a polymer or an electrode, or from an electron donor to a compound or an enzyme.
As used herein, the term “drain” or “drain electrode” refers to an electrode which accepts charge carriers from a channel. The terms “drain” and “drain electrode” are used interchangeably throughout the instant disclosure.
As used herein, a “electrochemical device”, “n-type electrochemical device”, “n-type polymer based electrochemical device” or “n-type polymers based accumulation mode electrochemical device” includes one or more source electrodes, one or more drain electrodes, one or more channels, a gate electrode, and an electrolyte solution containing one or more metabolites. The source electrode and the drain electrode are placed apart and connected electronically by the channel. The channel contains one or more enzymes and one or more n-type polymers. The gate electrode contains one or more n-type polymers and one or more enzymes. The gate electrode is placed separately from the source electrode, the drain electrode, and the channel to prevent electron flow between the gate electrode and the channel. The electrolyte solution is in electrical contact with the gate electrode and the channel. The electrochemical device may contain a plurality of independently addressable source and drain electrodes, a common gate electrode, and corresponding channels, wherein the corresponding channels contain different enzymes. The terms “electrochemical device”, “n-type electrochemical device”, “n-type polymer based electrochemical device” and “n-type polymers based accumulation mode electrochemical device” are used interchangeably throughout the instant disclosure. The electrochemical device disclosed herein may be used for in vitro and in vivo applications.
As used herein, the term “electrolyte solution” refers to a solution that contains ions, atoms, or molecules that have lost or gained electrons, and is electrically conductive. The electrolyte solution is in electrical communication with the bioanode and the biocathode. The electrolyte solutions contains one or more metabolites.
As used herein, the term “electron mediator” refers to a compound that can accept or donate electrons. Electron mediators can facilitate electron transfer generated from an enzymatic reaction between enzymes and metabolites to electrodes.
As used herein, the term “enzyme” refers to a protein that functions as a catalyst in a chemical reaction. Enzymes include, but are not limited to glucose oxidase, glucose dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase, formaldehyde dehydrogenase, lactic dehydrogenase, lactose dehydrogenase, lactate oxidase, cholesterol oxidase, tyrosinase, and pyruvate dehydrogenase. Preferred enzymes include oxidase which catalyzes the oxidation of a metabolite, such as glucose oxidase (GOx). Enzymes useful for biocathodes include oxygen reductase, such as laccase and bilirubin oxidase.
As used herein, the term “gate voltage” or “VG” refers to the gate to source voltage.
As used herein, the term “improved performance” or “improved sensing performance” in connection with n-polymer based electrochemical devices disclosed include high sensitivity and selectivity, wide dynamic range, tunable sensitivity, insensitivity to oxygen and pH, and/or improved stability.
As used herein, the term “metabolite” means any compound that has stored energy. Preferred metabolites are carbon-based compound that has stored energy. Metabolites include but are not limited to nucleic acids, carbohydrates, alcohols, fatty acids and other hydrocarbons, ketones, aldehydes, amino acids, and proteins. The “metabolite” may be a biological compound within an organism. Preferred metabolites are carbohydrates, which include glucose, glucose-2, D-glucose, L-glucose, and glucose-6-phosphate.
As used herein, the term “n-type polymer” or “n-type conjugaed polymer” refers to a polymer capable of accepting electrons and stabilizing electrons on its backbone. A preferred “n-type semiconducting polymer”, P90, is based on an NDI-T2 copolymer, which has a backbone comprising a highly electron-deficient naphthalene-1,4,5,8-tetracarboxylic diimide (NDI) repeat unit and an electron-rich unsubstituted bithiophene repeat unit (T2). (Giovannitti, et al., Chemistry of Materials, 30:2945-2953 (2018); Pappa, et al., Science Advances, 4:eaat0911 (2018)). The terms “n-type polymer” and “n-type conjugated polymer” are used interchangeably throughout the instant disclosure. The term “p-type polymer” refers to a polymer capable of donating electrons. The terms “n-type polymer” and “n-type conjugated polymer” are used interchangeably throughout the instant disclosure.
As used herein, the term “planar configuration” refers to the arrangement of the components of a electrochemical device is on a common plane.
As used herein, the term “physiological relevant concentration” refers to the concentration of the external or internal milieu that may occur in nature for that organism or cell system (Bruen, et al., Sensors, 17:1866 (2017)).
As used herein, the term “polar group” refers to a group in which the bond dipoles present do not cancel each other out and thus results in a molecular dipole.
As used herein, the term “sensor” refers to a device that detects or measures an event or a change of a physical property of an analyte, and records, indicates, or responds to the event or change. In one embodiment, the sensor can measure or sense metabolites, ions, pH, or temperature. In some embodiments, the sensor can measure or sense one or more analytes.
As used herein, the term “source” or “source electrode” refers to an electrode which provides charge carriers to a channel. The terms “source” and “source electrode” are used interchangeably throughout the instant disclosure.
As used herein, the term “source-drain current” or “ID” refers to the saturation current that flows through the channel.
As used herein, the term “stability” or “shelf life” refers to the electrochemical device's capability to preserve its detection sensitivity with no noticeable effect of degradation. “Improved stability” is used to refer to the fuel cell's capability to preserve its detection sensitivity with no noticeable effect of degradation for 6 months.
As used herein, the term “threshold potential” refers to the minimum gate voltage required to result in a ID in the absence of an enzymatic reaction.
II. N-Type Polymer Based Electrochemical DeviceThe Examples below demonstrate for the first time the use of n-type conjugated polymers in an accumulation mode electrochemical device for the direct detection of metabolites. The detection is based on direct electron transfer between the enzyme and the polymers. The n-type polymer based electrochemical device is greatly simplified, obviating the need for synthetic or post-synthetic biofunctionalization that involves complex chemistry, mediators, and a reference electrode. The use of a lateral micrometer-scale gate electrode based on the n-type polymer and elimination of an external reference electrode allow for straightforward adaptation of this device type into different geometries and forms for both in vitro and in vivo applications. The device also exhibits improved performance such as high sensitivity, wide dynamic range, tunable sensitivity according to the analyte range of choice (blood, saliva, sweat, and tears), excellent selectivity, and improved operational stability and a shelf life of 6 months. The role of the electrochemical device as both the amplifier and transducer and the design simplicity endowed by the inherent surface and bulk properties of the n-type material poise the resulting platform as a prominent alternative to the conventional amperometric enzyme electrodes. Another feature of the n-type polymer based electrochemical device is that it is selective toward the specific metabolites of interest without being affected by oxygen or change of pH.
N-type polymer based electrochemical device include one or more source electrodes, one or more drain electrodes, one or more channels, a gate electrode, and an electrolyte solution containing one or more metabolites. The dimension of the electrochemical device is between 1000 and 1000000 μm2. In some embodiments, the dimension of the channel is 1000 μm2 and the gate electrode is 250000 μm2. In one embodiment, the channel and gate each has a dimension of 100 μm2. The source electrode and the drain electrode are placed apart and connected electronically by a corresponding channel. The channel contains one or more enzymes and one or more n-type polymers. In some embodiments, the source electrode and drain electrode can be bridged by the channel, wherein the length of the channel is between 1 μm and 1000 μm. In one embodiment, the length of the channel bridging source electrode and drain electrode (i.e., the inter-electrode gap) is 10 μm. The gate electrode contains one or more n-type polymers and one or more enzymes. The gate electrode is placed separately from the source electrode, the drain electrode, and the channel to prevent electron flow between the gate electrode and the channel. The electrolyte solution is in electrical contact with the gate electrode and the channel. In the most preferred embodiments, the n-type polymers based electrochemical device has a planar configuration as shown in
In one embodiment, a gate voltage (VG) is applied and the metabolites react with the enzymes to produce the oxidized form of the metabolite and produces electrons, resulting in doping of the n-type polymers via direct electron transfer to the channel, increasing the conductivity of the polymers, thus increasing the saturating current that flows through the channel. The reduction of enzyme is reversible so enzymes are not consumed.
Optionally, the redox reactions can be irreversible if an electron mediator is added to provide additional reactant. A conductive substrate and an enzyme can be used wherein an electron mediator in contact with the channel is able to transfer electrons between its oxidized and reduced forms at the channel.
The disclosed n-type polymer based electrochemical device shows significantly improved stability, i.e., the same device can be used for multiple times over 6 months with no noticeable effect of degradation.
The n-type polymer based electrochemical device, in its simplest design, exhibits superior performances at physiologically relevant metabolite concentration, e.g. glucose and lactate, in that: (i) it avoids the tedious processes of synthetic or post-synthetic biofunctionalization involving complex chemistry, (ii) it does not need an electron mediator, (iii) it does not need a reference electrode, (iv) it is simple and scalable, (v) it can be miniaturized for a broad scope of applications in vitro and in vivo, (vi) it is highly sensitive to micromolar of metabolites, (vii) it is stable for at least 6 months, (viii) it has excellent selectivity to the metabolite of interest, (ix) its sensitivity is tunable according to the analyte range of choice (blood, saliva, sweat, and tears), and (x) it has a wide dynamic range. In some embodiments, the physiologically relevant concentration of glucose is between 0.1 μM and 6.9 mM, inclusive. In one embodiment, the physiological relevant concentration of glucose is between 0.1 μM and 20 mM, inclusive. The physiological concentration of glucose in different body fluids is disclosed in Bruen, et al., Sensors, 17:1866 (2017). In one embodiment, the physiological relevant concentration of lactate is between 10 μM and 100 mM, inclusive. The physiological concentration of lactate in different body fluids is disclosed in Goodwin, et al., J. Diabetes Sci. Technol., 1(4):558-569 (2007); Sakharov, et al., Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 150(1):83-85 (2010); and Tekus, et al., Acta Biol. Hung., 63(Suppl. 1):89-98 (2012).
A. Source and Drain Electrodes
The source and drain electrodes are made from materials capable of conducting an electric current. The electrode materials can be organic or inorganic in nature, as long as it is able to conduct electrons through the material. The electrodes can be a polymeric electrode, a metallic electrode, a semiconductor, a carbon-based material, a metal oxide, or a modified electrode. In some embodiments, the source and drain electrodes are made from an electrochemically inert material such as gold, platinum, or a conductive form of carbon, in order to prevent electrochemical corrosion upon operation whilst in contact with the electrolyte solution. In one embodiment, the electrodes are gold electrodes with an additional insulating layer such as Parylene C.
In some embodiments, the electrodes are made from a metallic conductor. Suitable metallic conductors include but are not limited to gold, chromium, platinum, iron, nickel, copper, silver, stainless steel, mercury, tungsten and other metals suitable for electrode construction. The metallic conductor can be a metal alloy which is made of a combination of metals disclosed above. In addition, conductive substrates which are metallic conductors can be constructed of nanomaterials made of gold, cobalt, diamond, and other suitable metals.
In other embodiments, the electrodes are made from carbon-based materials. Exemplary carbon-based materials are conducting polymers (in the form of films or fibers) carbon cloth, carbon paper, carbon screen printed electrodes, carbon paper, carbon black, carbon powder, carbon fiber, singe-walled carbon nanotubes, double-walled carbon nanotubes, multi-walled carbon nanotubes, carbon nanotube arrays, diamond-coated conductors, glassy carbon and mesoporous carbon. In addition, other exemplary carbon-based materials are graphene, graphite, uncompressed graphite worms, delaminated purified flake graphite, high performance graphite and carbon powders, highly ordered pyrolytic graphite, pyrolytic graphite, and polycrystalline graphite.
The electrodes can be semiconductors. Suitable semiconductors are prepared from silicon and germanium, which can be doped (i.e., the intentional introduction of impurities into an intrinsic semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical and structural properties) with other elements. The semiconductors can be doped with phosphorus, boron, gallium, arsenic, indium or antimony, or a combination thereof.
Other electrode materials can be metal oxides, metal sulfides, main group compounds, and modified materials. Exemplary materials of this type are nanoporous titanium oxide, tin oxide coated glass, glass, cerium oxide particles, molybdenum sulfide, boron nitride nanotubes, aerogels modified with a conductive material such as gold, solgels modified with conductive material such as carbon, ruthenium carbon aerogels, and mesoporous silicas modified with a conductive material such as gold.
In another preferred embodiment, the electrodes contain one or more conducting materials. In embodiments where the electrodes containing two or more conducting materials, the first conducting material can be a conducting polymer and a second conducting material can be a material disclosed above. The conducting polymers include but are not limited to poly(fluorine)s, polyphenylenes, polypyrenes, polyazulenes, polynaphthalenes, poly(pyrrole)s, polycarbozoles, polyindoles, polyzaepines, polyanilines, poly(thiophene)s, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), poly(acetylene)s, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), and polyimides. The second conducting material can be sputter coated on top of the conducting polymer, and the aggregate of the two makes up the conductive substrate. A preferred conductive substrate is a Kapton (polyimide) film sputter coated with Cr/Au.
The source and drain electrodes can be any shape appropriate such as rectangular, square, circular, and cylindrical. In a preferred embodiment, the electrodes are rectangular gold electrodes.
B. Channel
Generally, the channel electrochemically connects a pair of source and drain electrodes and contains elements that effect the oxidation of metabolites. The channel is arranged such that flow of electrons between the source electrode and the drain electrode is controllable by a voltage applied to the gate electrode. In some embodiments, the length of the channel is between 1 μm and 1000 μm, the width of the channel is between 1 μm and 1000 μm, and the thickness of the channel is between 50 nm and 1 μm. In a preferred embodiment, the channel bridging the source and the drain electrode has a dimension of 10 mm (length)×100 mm (width)×100 nm (thickness). In a n-type polymer based electrochemical device, the reaction that occurs at the channel is the oxidation of a compound such as a metabolite with a concurrent release of electrons; the electrons are transferred directly to the channel coated with the n-type polymers, increasing its conductivity, thereby turning the device on. To facilitate the specific oxidation of compounds such as metabolites, the channel contains one or more n-type polymers and one or more enzymes. In the most preferred embodiment, the n-type polymer is P90.
In one embodiment, the channel contains one or more polymeric materials and one or more enzymes. In another embodiment, the channel optionally further contains an electron mediator. An electron mediator can be absent from the channel when the channel contains a n-type polymer that is capable of interacting with the enzymes and promoting electron transfer from the oxidation reactions to the channel.
The above-identified components of the channel are adjacent to one another; meaning they are physically or chemically connected by appropriate means. In a preferred embodiment, the component are physically connected by coating such as by spin-coating, drop-casting, or electropolymerization. In one embodiment, electropolymerization may be performed in a solution containing one or more monomers of the corresponding polymers. In another embodiment, polymerization may be performed on a surface modified with monomers via potential triggering or stimulus such as UV light or temperature. The components can be deposited separately, e.g. in layers, or they can be integrated into one deposition layer.
1. N-Type Polymers
The polymeric material on the channel is any polymer that is capable of accepting (n-type) electrons produced in a reaction, resulting in increased charge carrier density and thus the conductivity of the polymer. The n-type polymer is a polymer capable of accepting electrons and stabilizing electrons on its backbone. Exemplary n-type polymers include N2300, P(NDI-T2), poly(diketopyrrolopyrrole) (DPP), poly(benzimidazobenzophenanthroline), poly(2,5-di(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)cyanoterephthalylidene), poly(2,5-di(hexyloxy)cyanoterephthalylidene), poly(5-(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)-2-methoxy-cyanoterephthalylidene), poly(2,5-di(octyloxy)cyanoterephthalylidene), and poly(5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-2-methoxy-cyanoterephthalylidene).
In some embodiments, the polymers on the channel is a single n-type polymer or a combination of several n-type polymers or a combination of n-type polymers with p-type polymers or semiconductor materials. A p-type polymer is any polymer that is capable of donating electrons to a compound, resulting in the reduction of an oxidant. In a preferred embodiment, the p-type polymer is a robust oxygen reducer, and it reduces oxygen to water.
Exemplary p-type polymers include, but are not limited to, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiphene) (PEDOT), poly(hydrooxymethyl 3,4-ethylenedioxythiphene) (PEDOT-OH), polystyrenesulfonate (PSS), F8BT, F8T2, J51, MDMO-PPV, MEH-PPV, PBDB-T, PBDTBO-TPD, PBDT(EH)-TPD, PBDTTT-C-T, PBDTTT-CF, PBTTPD, PBTTT-C14, PCDTBT, PCPDTBT, PDTSTPD, PffBT4T-20D, PffBT4T-C9C13, PFO-DBT, Poly([2,6′-4,8-di(5-ethylhexylthienyl)benzo[1,2-b;3,3-b]dithiophene]{3-fluoro-2[(2-ethylhexyl)carbonyl]thieno[3,4-b]thiophenediyl}), Poly(3-dodecylthiophene-2,5-diyl), Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl), Poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl), PSiF-DBT, poly(triaryl amine) (PTAA), PTB7, TQ1, and a combination thereof. Semiconductor materials may be inorganic, metal-organic, or organic, and the semiconductor may comprise small molecules, oligomers, or polymers (Kugler, US 2009/0040587).
In some embodiments, the n-type polymer is a structure-modified polymer to introduce lysine side chains. In a particular embodiment, DPP polymers are modified to incorporate lysine side chains. To incorporate lysine side chains on the DPP polymer, a thienyl-DPP (TDPP) monomer containing amine functionality was used (
In some embodiments, the n-type polymer is a structure-modified polymer to introduce polar groups. Exemplary polar groups include molecules with a single hydrogen, such as OH, molecules with at least one OH at one end, such as alcohol and alkylene glycol, and molecules with an N at one end, such as ammonia. In a preferred embodiment, the polar group is an alkylene glycol.
In the most preferred embodiment, the n-type polymer is P90, which is based on an NDI-T2 copolymer having a backbone comprising a highly electron-deficient naphthalene-1,4,5,8-tetracarboxylic diimide (NDI) repeat unit and an electron-rich unsubstituted bithiophene repeat unit (T2). (Giovannitti, et al., Chemical Materials, 30:2945-2953 (2018); Pappa, et al., Science Advances, 4:eaat0911 (2018)). The side chains on the diimide unit are a 90:10 randomly distributed ratio of polar glycol and nonpolar branched alkyl groups. Generally, the ratio of polar groups to nonpolar groups can be optimized to ensure solubility of the n-type polymer in polar solvents (Giovannitti, et al., Chemical Materials, 30:2945-2953 (2018)).
The polar groups such as the glycol side chains of P90 are envisaged to serve the dual role of (i) providing polar groups for the enzyme to interact with and (ii) enhancing the polymer's water uptake capacity to promote electrochemical activity in aqueous media (Al-Ani, et al., Polymers, 9:343 (2017); Yang, et al., Journal of Polymer Science B Polymer Physics, 43:1455-1464 (2005); Giovannitti, et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A., 113:12017-12022 (2016)). The polar groups in the polymer structure play a key role in the promotion of the entrapment of the enzyme and enzyme stabilization on the polymer surface.
2. Enzymes
An enzyme is necessary in the n-type polymer based electrochemical device for metabolite sensing, to catalyze the oxidation of a metabolite of interest. Accordingly, useful enzymes at the channel are enzymes involved in oxidation. Generally, naturally-occurring enzymes, man-made enzymes, artificial enzyme, and modified naturally-occurring enzymes can be used. In addition, engineered enzymes that have been engineered by natural or directed evolution can be used. An organic or inorganic molecule that mimics an enzyme's properties can be used in an embodiment of the present disclosure. Exemplary enzymes for use in a bioanode include glucose oxidase, glucose dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase, formaldehyde dehydrogenase, lactic dehydrogenase, lactose dehydrogenase, lactate oxidase, cholesterol oxidase, tyrosinase, and pyruvate dehydrogenase. In a preferred embodiment, the enzyme is glucose oxidase. In another preferred embodiment, the enzyme is lactate oxidase.
Strategies for biofunctionalization of channel/electrode surface with enzymes include: physical adsorption (i.e. spin-coating and drop-casting), covalent immobilization, cross-linking, affinity linking, and entrapment (Saboe, et al., Energy & Environmental Science, 10:14-42 (2017); Banica, Chemical Sensors and Biosensors: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, United Kingdom (2012); Yates, et al., Chemistry: A European Journal, 24(47):12164-12182 (2018); Mateo, et al., Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 40(6):1451-1463 (2007); Sheldon, Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis, 349(8-9):1289-1307; Rocchitta, et al., Sensors, 16(6):780 (2016)). In a preferred embodiment, the enzyme is drop-casted on top of a channel coated with n-type polymers. Methods of drop casting enzyme solutions onto a surface are known in the art (Pappa, et al., Science Advances, 4(6):eaat0911 (2018)). The enzyme is efficiently anchored to the surface of the polymer because of the structure of the polymer. The polar groups of the polymer facilitate interactions of the enzyme with the polymer and bring the enzyme in close proximity to the surface of the conductive substrate (Inal, et al., ACS Applied Bio Materials, 1(5):1348-1354 (2018)). The efficient immobilization of the enzyme allows good electrical contact with the polymer, so the electrons generated from the enzymatic reaction can be transferred directly from the redox center to the polymer backbone. Direct electrical communication between the polymer and the enzyme enables mediator-free direct electron transfer. In a particularly preferred embodiment, biofunctionalization of the electrode surface does not require complex chemistry, i.e. covalent immobilization, cross-linking, or affinity linking.
C. Gate Electrode
Generally, the gate electrode is made from a material descried above for the source and the drain electrodes. The gate electrode can be any shape appropriate such as rectangular, square, circular, and cylindrical. In some embodiments, the gate electrode has a dimension between 100 μm2 and 250000 μm2. In a preferred embodiment, the electrodes are rectangular with a dimension of 500 μm2. The gate electrode is placed separately from the source, the drain, and the channel and contains elements that effect the oxidation of metabolites. The oxidation of a compound such as a metabolite with a concurrent release of electrons; the electrons are transferred directly to the gate electrode coated with the n-type polymers, increasing its conductivity. In one embodiment, the gate electrode contains one or more n-type polymers and one or more enzymes. Polymers and enzymes described above can be used. The polymers and enzymes of the gate electrode can be the same or different from the polymers and enzymes at the channel. In another embodiment, the gate electrode optionally further contains an electron mediator. An electron mediator can be absent from the gate electrode when the gate electrode contains a n-type polymer that is capable of interacting with the enzymes and promoting electron transfer from the oxidation reactions to the gate electrode.
The above-identified components of the channel are adjacent to one another; meaning they are physically or chemically connected by appropriate means. In a preferred embodiment, the component are physically connected by coating such as by spin-coating, drop-casting, or electropolymerization. In one embodiment, electropolymerization may be performed in a solution containing one or more monomers of the corresponding polymers. In another embodiment, polymerization may be performed on a surface modified with monomers via potential triggering or stimulus such as UV light or temperature. The components can be deposited separately, e.g. in layers, or they can be integrated into one deposition layer.
In a n-type polymer based electrochemical device, a gate voltage (VG) is applied to dope the polymer film caused by the cations injected from the electrolyte solution, resulting in a baseline source-drain current (IBD), which is unrelated to the enzymatic reactions. The oxidation of a compound such as a metabolite with enzymes produces electrons that are directly transferred to the n-type polymers on the gate electrode and increase the polymers' conductivity thus leading to increased ID (signal output). In some embodiments, a constant VG is applied to the electrochemical device for metabolite sensing. In some embodiments, VG equal to or higher than a threshold voltage, that is, the minimum VG required to result in a ID in the absence of an enzymatic reaction, i.e. oxidation reaction between enzymes and metabolites. In one particular embodiment, the threshold voltage is 0.5 V. In some embodiments, the ID increases with increasing VG. Giovannitti and co-workers (Giovannitti, et al., Nature Communications, 7:13066 (2016)) recently showed that the polar glycol side chains attached to n-type polymer backbones enabled reversible electrochemical switching between the reduced (n-type-doped), oxidized (p-type-doped), and neutral state of the film in similar aqueous electrolytes. During the reduction process (triggered by a positive gate bias), cations drift into the film to counterbalance the electrons stabilized on the backbone of the copolymer.
D. Electrolyte Solution
The electrolyte solution is in electrically contact with the channel and the gate electrode. The electrolyte solution is a solution that contains ions, atoms, or molecules that have lost or gained electrons, and is electrically conductive. Electrolyte solutions include but are not limited to buffers such as phosphate buffer solution (PBS), salt water, MES buffer, Bis-Tris buffer, ADA, ACES, PIPES, MOPSO, Bis-Tris propane, BES, MOPS, TES, HEPES, DIPSO, MOBS, TAPSO, Trizma, HEPPSO, POPSO, TEA, EPPS, Tricine, Gly-gly, Bicine, HEPBS, TAPS, AMPD, TABS, AMPSO, CHES, CAPSO, AMP, CAPS, CABS, or a combination thereof; biological fluids such as whole blood, serum, urine, saliva, sweat; and a combination of buffers and biological fluids. The electrolyte solution has a pH between 6 and 8.5. In the most preferred embodiment, the electrolyte solution has a pH of 7.4.
The electrolyte solution contains one or more metabolites that react with the enzymes at the channel and the gate to produce electrons. The metabolites are consumed in the oxidation reaction with the enzymes. Exemplary metabolites are glucose, glucose-1, D-glucose, L-glucose, glucose-6-phosphate, ammonia, methanol, ethanol, propanol, isobutanol, butanol and isopropanol, allyl alcohols, aryl alcohols, glycerol, cholesterol, propanediol, mannitol, glucoronate, aldehyde, carbohydrates, lactate, lactate-6-phosphate, D-lactate, L-lactate, fructose, galactose-1, galactose, aldose, sorbose, mannose, glycerate, coenzyme A, acetyl Co-A, malate, isocitrate, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetate, citrate, L-gluconate, beta-hydroxysteroid, alpha-hydroxysteroid, lactaldehyde, testosterone, gluconate, fatty acids, lipids, phosphoglycerate, retinal, estradiol, cyclopentanol, hexadecanol, long-chain alcohols, coniferyl-alcohol, cinnamyl-alcohol, formate, long-chain aldehydes, pyruvate, butanal, acryl-CoA, steroids, amino acids, favin, NADH, NADH2, NADPH, NADPH2, and hydrogen. In a preferred embodiment, the metabolite is glucose, glucose-1, D-glucose, L-glucose, or glucose-6-phosphate. In one particular embodiment, the metabolite is glucose. In another preferred embodiment, the metabolite is lactate, lactate-6-phosphate, D-lactate, or L-lactate. In another particular embodiment, the metabolite is lactate.
E. Supporting Substrate
In some embodiments, a supporting substrate is used to support the source, drain, gate electrodes and the channel. In some embodiments, the components identified above are patterned on a single layer of the supporting substrate. In the most preferred embodiments, the n-type polymers based electrochemical device has a planar configuration as shown in
In one embodiment, the components are physically and chemically connected with the supporting substrate. In a preferred embodiment, the component are physically connected with the supporting substrate by coating such as by sput-coating, spin-coating, drop-casting, or otherwise deposing the individual components on the supporting substrate (Libansky, et al., Electrochimica Acta, 251:452-460 (2017)).
F. Electron Mediator
Optionally, an electron mediator can be used in the n-type polymer based electrochemical device. The electron mediator is a compound that can accept or donate electrons. The electron mediator can be attached onto the channel and the gate electrode. Exemplary electron mediators are pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), phenazine methosulfate, dichlorophenol indophenol, short chain ubiquinones, potassium ferricyan, or equivalents of each.
III. Methods of Making the N-Type Polymer Based Electrochemical DeviceN-type polymer based electrochemical devices disclosed herein include one or more source electrodes, one or more drain electrodes, one or more channels, a gate electrode, and an electrolyte solution containing one or more metabolites. The source electrode and the drain electrode are placed apart and connected electronically by the corresponding channel. The channel contains one or more enzymes and one or more n-type polymers. In some embodiments, the source electrode and drain electrode can be bridged by the channel, wherein the length of the channel is between 1 μm and 1000 μm. In one embodiment, the length of the channel bridging source electrode and drain electrode (i.e., the inter-electrode gap) is 10 μm. The gate electrode contains one or more n-type polymers and one or more enzymes. The gate electrode is placed separately from the source electrode, the drain electrode, and the channel to prevent electron flow between the gate electrode and the channel. The electrolyte solution is in electrical contact with the gate electrode and the channel. In the most preferred embodiments, the n-type polymers based electrochemical device has a planar configuration as shown in
In some embodiments, the n-type polymers and enzymes of the channel and the gate are adjacent to one another; meaning they are physically or chemically connected by appropriate means. In a preferred embodiment, the component are physically connected by coating such as by spin-coating, drop-casting, or electropolymerization. In one embodiment, electropolymerization may be performed in a solution containing one or more monomers of the corresponding polymers. In another embodiment, polymerization may be performed on a surface modified with monomers via potential triggering or stimulus such as UV light or temperature. The components can be deposited separately, e.g. in layers, or they can be integrated into one deposition layer.
In some embodiments, the n-type polymer based electrochemical device further includes a supporting substrate and the source, drain, and gate electrodes can be patterned on the supporting substrate. In some other embodiments, the electrochemical device can be incorporated into a microfluidics configuration. In one embodiment, the components are physically and chemically connected with the supporting substrate. In a preferred embodiment, the component are physically connected with the supporting substrate by coating such as by sputt-coating, spin-coating, drop-casting, or otherwise deposing the individual components on the supporting substrate.
In a preferred embodiment, gold contacts (located at the source, drain and gate) and interconnects were patterned on a glass substrate while an additional layer of Parylene C was used to insulate the gold interconnects according to established protocol (Nielsen, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 138:10252-10259 (2016); Sessolo, et al., Advanced Materials, 25(15):2135-2139 (2013)). The final channel dimension is 10 μm in length and 100 μm in width. The gate electrode has an active area of 500 μm2. The active material, P-90, was spin-casted (1000 rpm, 30 s) directly from a chloroform solution without any annealing or post processing steps. The polymer P-90 was synthesized according to the literature (Giovannitti, et al., Chem. Mater., 30:2945-2953 (2018)).
IV. Methods of Using the N-Type Polymer Based Electrochemical DeviceOne of the various aspects of the disclosed n-type polymer based electrochemical device is a method of detecting metabolites. In a n-type polymer based electrochemical device, a gate voltage (VG) is applied to dope the polymer film caused by the cations injected from the electrolyte solution, resulting in a baseline source-drain current (IBD), which is unrelated to the enzymatic reactions. The oxidation of a compound such as a metabolite with enzymes produces electrons that are directly transferred to the n-type polymers on the gate electrode and the channel. The n-type polymers have conjugated backbone that have the ability to stabilize electrons. Enzymatic reactions increase the charge carrier density and thus the conductivity of the channel, leading to increased ID (signal output), thereby turning the device on. In some embodiments, a constant VG is applied to the electrochemical device for metabolite sensing. In some embodiments, VG equal to or higher than a threshold voltage, that is, the minimum VG required to result in a ID in the absence of an enzymatic reaction, i.e. oxidation reaction between enzymes and metabolites. In one particular embodiment, the threshold voltage is 0.5 V.
The n-type polymer based electrochemical device can be used for both in vitro and in vivo applications. In one embodiment, the electrochemical device can be used as an in vivo sensing device for measuring metabolites such as glucose and/or lactate from the blood stream. Such in vivo electrochemical sending devices may be utilized as an implanted device for continuously monitoring a single metabolite or multiple metabolites simultaneously, wherein the metabolites are derived from the organism. In another embodiment, the electrochemical device can be used as in vitro as portable devices and/or wearable electronics that measure metabolites, including, but not limited to, glucose and lactate.
In another embodiment, a method of detecting metabolites using the n-type polymers based electrochemical device is disclosed, which contains the steps of (a) applying a gate potential (VG), (b) electron transferring from the enzymes to the n-type polymers during an enzymatic reaction between the enzymes and the metabolites in the electrolyte solution, and (c) monitoring changes of a source-drain current (ID) that flows through the channel that connects the source electrode and the drain electrode. The ID changes with the change of metabolite concentration. In a preferred embodiment, the ID increases with the increase of metabolite concentration. In some embodiments, the VG equal to or higher than a threshold voltage. In a preferred embodiment, the threshold voltage is 0.5 V. In some embodiments, the sensor sensitivity is tunable by varying the biasing conditions to fit the analyte range of choice in different body fluids such as blood, saliva, sweat, and tears (Pappa, et al., Science Advances, 4(6):eaat0911 (2018)).
In a preferred embodiment, n-type polymer based electrochemical devices are fabricated using (a) gold source and drain electrodes, (b) GOx and n-type polymer coated channel, (c) GOx and n-type polymer coated gold gate electrode, and (d) phosphate buffer solution containing glucose wherein the glucose is at a physiological relevant concentration. Electrochemical devices employing these components have demonstrated responsive to nanomolar concentration of glucose and a wide dynamic range of detection from 100 nM to 20 mM and also high reversibility. For example, when the glucose solution is replaced with buffer solution, the current reverts to its original value. The electrochemical device are stable for 6 months.
In another preferred embodiment, n-type polymer based electrochemical devices are fabricated using (a) gold source and drain electrodes, (b) LOx and n-type polymer coated channel, (c) LOx and n-type polymer coated gold gate electrode, and (d) phosphate buffer solution containing lactate wherein the glucose is at a physiological relevant concentration. Electrochemical devices employing these components have demonstrated responsive to micromolar concentration of lactate and a wide dynamic range of detection from 10 μM to 10 mM and also high reversibility. The electrochemical device are stable for 6 months.
The present invention will be further understood by reference to the following non-limiting examples.
EXAMPLESIt is demonstrated for the first time the use of n-type conjugated polymers in an accumulation mode electrochemical device for the direct detection of metabolites. The detection is based on direct electron transfer between the enzyme and the polymers. The n-type polymers based electrochemical device is greatly simplified, obviating the need for synthetic or post-synthetic biofunctionalization that involves complex chemistry, mediators, and a reference electrode. The use of a lateral micrometer-scale gate electrode based on the n-type polymer and elimination of an external reference electrode allow for straightforward adaptation of this device type into different geometries and forms for both in vitro and in vivo applications. The device also exhibits improved performance such as high sensitivity, wide dynamic range, tunable sensitivity according to the analyte range of choice (blood, saliva, sweat, and tears), excellent selectivity, and improved operational stability and a shelf life of 6 months. The role of OECT as both the amplifier and transducer and the design simplicity endowed by the inherent surface and bulk properties of the n-type material poise the resulting platform as a prominent alternative to the conventional amperometric enzyme electrodes.
Example 1. N-Type OECT Allows for Direct Detection of GlucoseMaterials and Methods
For the device fabrication, the gold contacts (located at the source, drain and gate) and interconnects were patterned on a glass substrate while an additional layer of Parylene C was used to insulate the gold interconnects according to established protocol (Sessolo, et al., Advanced Materials, 25(15):2135-2139 (2013)). The final channel dimension is 10 μm in length and 100 μm in width. The active material, P-90, was spin casted (1000 rpm, 30 s) directly from a chloroform solution without any annealing or post processing steps.
For the sensing experiments, GOx in PBS (10 mg mL−1) was drop-casted on the device active area (channel and gate). Glucose was dissolved as stock solutions in PBS. Current-voltage characteristics of the devices were recorded using a Keithley 2602A dual SourceMeter. The readout signal of the OECT at zero analyte concentration was the steady-state current obtained in the PBS solution. After a steady baseline was obtained for the drain current, changes in response to subsequent additions of increasing concentrations of lactate solutions into the electrolyte were monitored as a function of time. For all experiments, the volume of the solution was kept at 40 μL. The response of the device to glucose was normalized to allow for an accurate comparison between different devices. The normalized response (NR) was determined by the equation (1), which takes into account the current output after it reaches a steady-state value:
where I and Imax are the current output at a given analyte concentration and the maximum current output of the device at the analyte saturation concentration, respectively.
Results
The sensor is composed of an n-type semiconductor coated OECT (Pappa, et al., Trends in Biotechnology, 36(1):45-59 (2017); Inal, et al., Nature Communications, 8(1):1767 (2017)) while the active material is a n-type conjugated polymer based on a naphthalene-1,4,5,8-tetracarboxylic-diimide-bithiophene (NDI-T2) copolymer (Chen, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 131(1):8-9 (2009)) consisting of alternating naphthalene dicarboximide (NDI) acceptor and bithiophene (T2) donor subunits (
The P90-based OECT is here functionalized with glucose oxidase (GOx) (
Materials and Methods
OECT response is governed by its gain (Rivnay, et al., Nature Reviews Materials, 3:17086 (2018); Inal, et al., Nature Communications, 8(1):1767 (2017)), which in turn depends on the bias applied. It is possible to tune the sensor sensitivity by varying the biasing conditions (Pappa, et al., Science Advances, 4(6):eaat0911 (2018)). In accumulation mode OECT, the magnitude of the bias applied dictates at which interface (gate or channel) the enzymatic reaction will occur, as opposed to classic depletion mode sensors where the reaction is always happening at the positively biased gate electrode. Three different combinations of gate and drain bias were tested herein, namely VG>VD, VD>VG and VD=VG.
Results
where ΔID is the steady state current after addition of glucose, c is the glucose concentration and ΔImax is the maximum current measured at analyte saturation. Kmapp was determined from the slope and the intercept of the plot (1/ΔID) vs (1/c). It is found that Kmapp equals to 4.25 μM, much smaller than GOx entrapped in carbon nanotubes (Kang, et al., RSC Advances, 7(8):4572-4579 (2017)) or nanodots (Zhao, et al., Analytical Chemistry, 87(5):2615-2622 (2015)), immobilized on gold nanoparticles (Zhang, et al., Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 109(2):367-374 (2005); Zhang, et al., Bioelectrochemistry, 67(1):15-22 (2005)) and in carbon/polymer based materials (Christwardana, et al., Scientific Reports, 6:30128 (2016)).
Example 3. The n-Type OECT Demonstrates Excellent Selectivity to Glucose in the Presence of Glucose OxidaseMaterials and Methods
The selectivity measurements have been performed for two combination of VD and VG and the corresponding gate currents for each measurements are plotted in
Results
In electrochemical based detection, selectivity of the biosensor to the analyte of choice is paramount as other electrochemically active compounds, known as interferences in complex media, can give rise to false positive signals. The n-type OECT sensor exhibits excellent selectivity to glucose in the presence of GOx as verified from
Materials and Methods
The device's operational stability has been tested under successive gate voltage pulses (5s pulse) for over 2h of operation with different VD/VG combination effects.
Results
The sensitivity to interference is strongly linked with the bias conditions applied (
Overall, a diligent choice of the bias applied not only allows to tune the sensitivity of the device but also enhances the control of the devices operational stability. The device exhibits a wide dynamic range with the ability to tune its sensitivity according to the analyte range of choice (blood, saliva, sweat, and tears), good selectivity and operational stability and importantly a shelf life of over 6 months.
Example 5. The n-Type Polymer Allows Direct Electrochemical Communication Between the Enzyme and the Polymer FilmMaterials and Methods.
GOx was drop-casted on the surface of the device for 30 minutes, followed by tedious rinsing with deionized water and drying with nitrogen gas. The extra rinsing step implemented here reassures the removal of non-adsorbed enzyme. Fresh buffer solution, without enzyme, was then introduced on the device as electrolyte and bias was applied to the OECT. The drain current was monitored over time as progressively glucose aliquots were added in the solution. In order to validate the direct electron transfer mechanism, the gate was disconnected and the device was placed in a resistor configuration. GOx and the analyte (1 mM glucose) were added sequentially and the drain current was monitored over time.
Results
The direct electrochemical communication between enzymes and the polymer film is attributed to the presence of ethylene glycol groups from the copolymer side-chains. The direct electron transfer mechanism as well as the vital role of polar glycol groups in the enzyme stabilization on the surface were demonstrated.
In order to validate the direct electron transfer mechanism, the gate was disconnected and the device was placed in a resistor configuration. GOx and the analyte (1 mM glucose) were added sequentially and the drain current was monitored over time (
Materials and Methods
The role of polar glycol groups on the enzyme adsorption on the polymer was investigated through QCM measurements in similar manner to previously attempts (Pappa, et al., Science Advances, 4(6):eaat0911 (2018)). The adhesion of GOx on two different copolymers sharing the same NDI-T2 backbone but a different ratio of alkyl/glycol side chains, 100/0 (P0) and 10/90 (P90) respectively. The effective physical entrapment of the GOx enzyme on the P90 film using quartz microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) was determined. QCM-D has been used in numerous applications owing to its ability to monitor surface interactions (Savva, et al., Journal of Materials Chemistry C, epub online Jul. 11, 2018; Jensen, et al., Langmuir, 28(30):11106-11114 (2012)). QCM-D measurements were conducted using a Q-sense analyzer (QE401) on bare Au sensor (as reference) and then on the Au sensor coated with the film.
Results
The evidenced strong adsorption of enzymes lies in the presence of ethylene glycol side chains that promote the adhesion of proteins on the surface of the polymer. The ethylene glycol side chains are distributed on the surface of the electrode as demonstrated by monitoring lipids bilayer formation (Inal, et al., ACS Applied Bio Materials, 1(5):1348-1354 (2018)). The adhesion of GOx on two different polymers with different glycol fraction, a P90 film (90% glycol) and a P0 film (0% glycol) was compared. The QCM-D modelling of the mass added on the polymer film (using the 7th overtone) for the two different surfaces was done using the Sauerbrey equation:
where n is the number of the selected overtone for the quantification of the mass and −17.7 is a constant determined on the resonant frequency, active area, density and shear modulus of the piezoelectrically active quartz crystal (Savva, et al., Journal of Materials Chemistry C, epub online Jul. 11, 2018). Based on a previous reported study of the NDI-T2 polymer series with various ethylene glycol fractions and the appropriate fitting of our measurements, modelling the experiment through the Sauerbrey equation is valid (Inal, et al., Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics, 54(2):147-151 (2016)). After stabilizing the film in buffer solution (PBS), a GOx solution (10 mg·mL−1) is introduced in the chamber. The film is stabilized and pure buffer is purged in the chamber to allow loosely bound proteins to desorb. As the enzyme solution is flowing on the sensor surface, a similar amount is observed to get adsorbed on the surface of the two polymers under constant flow (ca. 100 ng and 118 ng·cm−2 for P0 and P90 respectively). Upon rinsing the sensor with PBS, a 50% decrease of the adsorbed enzyme amount on the P0 surface was found, compared to the mere 7% for the case of the P90 film (
Overall, the n-type OECT device in an accumulation mode allows for complex biofunctionalization-free, mediator-free, and reference electrode-free direct glucose detection. The device detection is based on direct electron transfer between the enzyme and the polymer and exhibits a wide dynamic range (100 nM to 20 mM, spanning through the physiologically relevant concentration ranges of glucose in biological fluids), excellent selectivity and selectivity, improved operational stability and a shelf life of over 6 months. It is confirmed that the polymer structure plays an important role in the adsorption of the enzyme through the presence of ethylene glycol side-chains. Further, by tuning the device operation parameters, it is possible to control the sensitivity and dynamic range of the device according to the biological fluid of interest (blood, saliva, sweat).
Example 7. N-Type OECT Allows for Direct Detection of LactoseMaterials and Methods
For the device fabrication, the Au contacts (located at the source, drain, and gate) and interconnects were patterned on a glass substrate, and an additional layer of Parylene C was used to insulate the Au interconnects according to established protocol (Nielsen, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 138:10252-10259 (2016)). The final channel dimension is 10 mm in length and 100 mm in width, while the gate electrode has an active area of 500 mm2. The active material, P-90, was spin-cast directly from a solution (1000 rpm, 30 s) without any annealing or post processing steps. The polymer P-90 was synthesized according to the literature (Giovannitti, et al., Chem. Mater., 30:2945-2953 (2018)).
For the sensing experiments, lactate oxidase (Lox) in PBS (10 mg ml−1) was drop-casted on the device active area (channel and gate). The schematics describing this functionalization step can be found in
Results
The n-type-conjugated polymer that was chosen as the active material is P90 (Chen, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 131:8-9 (2009)), which has a backbone comprising a highly electron-deficient naphthalene-1,4,5,8-tetracarboxylic diimide (NDI) repeat unit and an electron rich unsubstituted bithiophene repeat unit (T2) (
The copolymer P90 based OECT coupled with lactate oxidase (LOx) is schematically depicted in
As P90 has the ability to stabilize electrons on its backbone, those generated during an enzymatic reaction could be directly transferred to the channel, increasing its conductivity (Liang, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 137:4956-4959 (2015)), thereby turning the device on (
This platform yields excellent biosensor analytical characteristics as evidenced from the normalized lactate titration curves (
The observed deviation in the sensor performance among different devices is mostly attributed to the thickness variations of the film in the channel, which affect the gain of the OECT. It is believed that control over film thickness can be easily addressed by adjusting the fabrication procedure as showed in previous study (Braendlein, et al., Advanced Materials, 29(13):1605744 (2017)). Furthermore, the error arising from multiple measurements on the same device can be reduced by introducing a more controlled environment for the addition of lactate. For example, the volume of the liquid that the device is exposed to could be controlled precisely by integration of microfluidics, which would mitigate user error.
Example 8. The n-Type OECT Allows for Efficient Electron Transfer from the Enzyme to the PolymerMaterials and Methods
All characterization was performed in PBS. The cyclic voltammograms were recorded using a potentiostat-galvanostat (PGSTAT128N, Autolab) with an Ag/AgCl reference electrode and a Pt counter electrode. The working electrode was P-90 cast on a Au-coated glass substrate. The system, in a closed chamber, was systematically degassed for at least 15 min in N2 before performing any measurements for characterization under inert atmosphere. The topography and the roughness of the polymer film and the enzyme adsorption were investigated using AFM and QCM-D. AFM measurements were performed in tapping contact mode with an Agilent 5500 SPM AFM in both air and liquid. QCM-D measurements were conducted using a Q-sense analyzer (QE401) on a bare Au sensor (as reference) and then on the Au sensor coated with the film. The data were treated with a viscoelastic model to calculate the mass of the enzyme adsorbed on the film (ElMahmoudy, et al., Macromol. Mater. Eng., 302:1600497 (2017)). UV-vis-NIR spectra were recorded using an Ocean Optics QE Pro Scientific grade spectrometer (185 to 1050 nm). For spectroelectrochemistry measurements, the spectrometer was coupled to a Keithley 2606A source measure unit, and when required, bias was applied between the polymer-coated ITO substrate, which serves as the working electrode and a Ag/AgCl reference electrode.
Results
To elucidate the mechanism behind the gradual increase in the channel current as lactate is oxidized by LOx in the electrolyte, the interactions between the enzyme and the film is studied, which leads to such an efficient electrochemical communication. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) measurements are used because of the versatility of the tool in monitoring interactions of a solid surface with certain species in a solution (Pappa, et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 9:10427-10434 (2017)).
The cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves show footprints of the interactions and the electronic communication between the enzyme and the film (
The ultraviolet-visible-near-infrared (UV-vis-NIR) absorbance spectrum of the P90 film in PBS solution containing LOx illustrates these interactions from another aspect (
Materials and Methods
To rule out the possibility of P90 exhibiting inherent catalytic activity toward H2O2, the device sensitivity to H2O2 was tested. The device sensitivity to pH was also evaluated.
Results
Generally, for oxidases (such as LOx) where the cofactor is not sufficiently wired to the electrode and in the absence of an ET mediator, the diffusing molecular O2 sequesters the electrons from the reduced cofactor and is converted to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (
Moreover, the sensitivity of the device to detect lactate is specific to its oxidation by the enzyme and not due to a decrease in pH of the solution (for example, H+ doping). The decrease in solution pH, adjusted via HCl additions or an increase in lactate concentration, does not have a major influence in the normalized response (NR) of the OECT (see the inset of
Together, it is concluded that the enzyme is efficiently anchored to the surface of the P90 film, presumably because of interactions with ethylene glycol side chains (Al-Ani, et al., Polymers, 9:343 (2017)). As such, it has a good electrochemical contact with the redox-active copolymer; that is, the electrons generated from the enzymatic reaction can be transferred from the FMN to the polymer backbone (
Materials and Methods
To evaluate the change of the analytical characteristics of the n-type OECT device depending on the biasing conditions, different biasing conditions at the gate electrode for a VD fixed at 0.7 V were tested.
Results
In the comparative lactate titration curves of the n-type accumulation mode OECT biosensor, the change of analytical characteristics of the device depending on the biasing conditions was shown (
Another striking feature of this device type is the capability to drive the enzymatic reaction either at the gate or at the channel by varying the magnitude of the voltage applied at the corresponding contacts (
Overall, the n-type OECT device embodies a new concept in enzyme-based sensing where it takes advantage of the superior ion-to-electron transducing qualities of an electron-transporting (n-type) organic semiconductor and the inherent amplification properties of an ion-to-electron converting device, the OECT. The detection of lactate, a target metabolite of high biological significance in determining cellular metabolic pathways and tightly associated with critical health care conditions, was demonstrated using a fully integrated, miniaturized, easy-to-fabricate transistor platform. The polar side chains of the copolymer aid in promoting interactions with the enzyme, alleviating the need of synthetic or post-synthesis biofunctionalization that involves complex chemical approaches that aim to bring the enzyme in close proximity to the sensing surface. As such, direct electrical communication between the film and the enzyme enables mediator-free direct detection of lactate, benefiting from the electron-accepting properties of the OMC. When used in an OECT configuration, the sensing performance is greatly enhanced because of the inherent amplification of these devices.
One obvious advantage of this accumulation mode OECT compared to a conventional amperometric sensor is the inherent amplification of the signal by the channel, allowing for miniaturization. Only a few tens of micromolars of lactate causes a detectable change in the channel current. When the micrometer-scale LOx-functionalized channel is used as a resistor (simply by disconnecting the gate electrode), the change in its current with lactate is close to noise level, highlighting the role of the transistor circuit in amplifying the signal. The use of a lateral micrometer-scale gate electrode based on the n-type polymer and elimination of an external reference electrode allow for straightforward adaptation of this device type into different geometries and forms and, thus, greatly expand the application scope. Furthermore, it has been shown that controlling the operation conditions not only fine-tunes the device's analytical performance but also determines where the redox reactions take place, without the need to redesign de novo.
One evident benefit of this mode of operation is its compatibility with spatially resolved multi parametric sensing based on a single device platform including a common gate electrode and channels functionalized with different enzymes.
Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of skill in the art to which the disclosed invention belongs. Publications cited herein and the materials for which they are cited are specifically incorporated by reference.
Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.
Claims
1. An-type polymer based electrochemical device for metabolite sensing comprising:
- one or more source electrodes;
- one or more drain electrodes;
- one or more channels which comprise (a) one or more n-type polymers and (b) one or more enzymes;
- a gate electrode which comprises (a) one or more n-type polymers and (b) one or more enzymes;
- an electrolyte solution which comprises one or more metabolite capable of reacting with the enzymes,
- wherein the source electrodes and drain electrodes are electrically connected by the channels, and wherein the electrolyte solution is in electrical contact with the channels and the gate electrode.
2. The electrochemical device of claim 1 further comprising: (a) a supporting substrate, wherein the one or more source electrodes, the one or more drain electrodes, the gate electrode are patterned on the supporting substrate; and/or (b) an electron mediator.
3. The electrochemical device of claim 2, where in the supporting substrate is selected from the group consisting of glass, polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene naphthalene dicarboxylate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, paper, coated paper, resin-coated paper, paper laminates, paperboard, and corrugated board.
4. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein: (a) the one or more source electrodes, the one or more drain electrodes, and the gate electrode are in planar configuration, (b) the n-type polymer is a structure-modified n-type polymer to introduce polar groups; (c) the electrical device comprises a plurality of independently addressable source, drain, and a common gate electrode, and corresponding channels.
5. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein the n-type polymer is selected from the group consisting of N2300, P(NDI-T2), poly(diketopyrrolopyrrole) (DPP), poly(benzimidazobenzophenanthroline), poly(2,5-di(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)cyanoterephthalylidene), poly(2,5-di(hexyloxy)cyanoterephthalylidene), poly(5-(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)-2-methoxy-cyanoterephthalylidene), poly(2,5-di(octyloxy)cyanoterephthalylidene), and poly(5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-2-methoxy-cyanoterephthalylidene).
6. (canceled)
7. The electrochemical device of claim 64, wherein the polar group is lysine.
8. The electrochemical device of claim 7, wherein the n-type polymer is P90.
9. (canceled)
10. (canceled)
11. (canceled)
12. (canceled)
13. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein: (a) the one or more enzymes are selected from the group consisting of glucose oxidase, glucose dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase, formaldehyde dehydrogenase, lactic dehydrogenase, lactose dehydrogenase, lactate oxidase, cholesterol oxidase, tyrosinase, and pyruvate dehydrogenase, and/or (b) the metabolite is selected from the group consisting of glucose, glucose-1, D-glucose, L-glucose, glucose-6-phosphate, ammonia, methanol, ethanol, propanol, isobutanol, butanol and isopropanol, allyl alcohols, aryl alcohols, glycerol, cholesterol, propanediol, mannitol, glucoronate, aldehyde, carbohydrates, lactate, lactate-6-phosphate, D-lactate, L-lactate, fructose, galactose-1, galactose, aldose, sorbose, mannose, glycerate, coenzyme A, acetyl Co-A, malate, isocitrate, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetate, citrate, L-gluconate, beta-hydroxysteroid, alpha-hydroxysteroid, lactaldehyde, testosterone, gluconate, fatty acids, lipids, phosphoglycerate, retinal, estradiol, cyclopentanol, hexadecanol, long-chain alcohols, coniferyl-alcohol, cinnamyl-alcohol, formate, long-chain aldehydes, pyruvate, butanal, acryl-CoA, steroids, amino acids, favin, NADH, NADH2, NADPH, NADPH2, and hydrogen.
14. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein: (a) the metabolite is selected from the group consisting of lactate, lactate-6-phosphate, D-lactate, L-lactate, glucose, glucose-1, D-glucose, L-glucose, and glucose-6-phosphate; and optionally, is at a physiologically relevant concentration; and/or (b) the electrolyte solution is a buffer, a biological fluid, or a combination thereof; and is optionally, is at a pH between 6 and 8.5.
15. (canceled)
16. (canceled)
17. (canceled)
18. (canceled)
19. (canceled)
20. (canceled)
21. (canceled)
22. (canceled)
23. (canceled)
24. The electrochemical device of claim 3, wherein the corresponding channels comprise different enzymes.
25. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein the gate electrode has a dimension between 100 μm2 and 250000 μm2; the length of the channel is between 1 μm and 1000 μm; the width of the channel is between 1 μm and 1000 μm and/or the dimension of the electrochemical device is between 1000 and 1000000 μm2.
26. (canceled)
27. (canceled)
28. (canceled)
29. (canceled)
30. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein the channel is arranged such that flow of electrons between the source electrode and the drain electrode is controllable by a voltage applied to the gate electrode.
31. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein the reaction of the metabolites and the enzymes produces electrons which are transferred to the n-type polymers.
32. The electrochemical device of claim 30, wherein the electrons are transferred via direct electron transfer.
33. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein the electrochemical device is stable for 6 months.
34. (canceled)
35. (canceled)
36. (canceled)
37. (canceled)
38. A method of detecting metabolites using the electrochemical device of claim 1, contains the steps of (a) applying a gate potential (VG), (b) electron transferring from the enzymes to the n-type polymers during an enzymatic reaction between the enzymes and the metabolites in the electrolyte solution, and (c) monitoring changes of a source-drain current (ID) that flows through the channel that connects the source electrode and the drain electrode.
39. The method of claim 38, wherein: (a) the ID increases with increasing concentration of metabolites; (b) the gate potential equal to or higher than a threshold voltage; or (c) wherein the reaction the enzymes and the metabolites produces electrons which are directly transferred to the n-type polymers.
40. (canceled)
41. The method of claim 39, wherein the threshold voltage is 0.5 V.
42. (canceled)
Type: Application
Filed: Jan 18, 2019
Publication Date: May 6, 2021
Inventors: Sahika Inal (Thuwal), Anna-Maria Pappa (Cambridge), Alexander Giovannitti (London)
Application Number: 16/962,971
