Abstract: A radar module for level and/or limit level monitoring in plant automation, comprising a radar signal source that generates and transmit a radar signal, the radar signal source having a surface facing a filling material, a radar signal conductor that receives, conducts and emits the radar signal, the radar signal conductor being mounted on the surface of the radar signal source, and a potting compound that at least partially covers the surface of the radar signal source and at least partially covers the radar signal conductor.

Abstract: An electronic liquid level gauge assembly includes an electronic display located in a housing connected to a tank. The display has first and second display portions for indicating liquid level condition. A first electronic sensor senses a change in magnetic field of a magnet associated with a liquid level transducer, with magnet rotation being proportional liquid level change. A processor determines a temperature-compensated liquid level condition by correlating the liquid level signal with temperature measurement of the liquid. A temperature-compensated vapor space can also be calculated based on tank information and properties of the liquid. Signals related to the temperature-compensated liquid level and vapor space are sent to the display and wirelessly transmitted to a smart phone or the like for remotely viewing the tank information. The smart phone also includes a special app for sending information, firmware updates, and display configuration data to the electronic gauge assembly.

Abstract: A unit for detecting a filling level of a liquid in a container. The unit includes at least one float gauge, which carries at least one permanent magnet, and including at least one switching unit, which is actuatable by the permanent magnet and is fastened in or at the container. It is provided that at least one energizable magnetic device for generating a magnetic field is assigned to the switching unit, which, when sufficiently energized, generates a magnetic field, which actuates the switching unit when the switching unit is functional.

Abstract: Methods for operating a flowmeter diagnostic tool are provided that comprise interfacing the diagnostic tool with a flowmeter (5) sensor assembly (10). A base prover volume (BPV), a desired number of passes per run, and/or a maximum number of allowed runs may be input into the diagnostic tool. Flowmeter data is received. An estimated total prove time (TPT) necessary to pass a predetermined repeatability requirement, an estimated minimum number of runs needed to achieve the calculated TPT, and/or an estimated minimum BPV may be calculated. A standard deviation of the flowmeter sensor assembly flow rate (?) is calculated, and the number of samples used to calculate a is determined. A meter-specific factor (MSF) is calculated.

Abstract: A telescoping weigh fork unit where a base fork has an integrated hydraulic cylinder and a slideable outer shoe on which are supported at least two load cells. Optionally the unit may include an outside telescopic fork shoe to which the load cells are mounted and which supports the outer shoe. Unit may further include a system to alert if distance or weight thresholds are exceeded or if a load cell is inoperable.

Abstract: Systems and methods for controlling a scale. One system includes a first touchless button, a first visual indicator associated with the first touchless button, a second touchless button, coupled to an electronic processor. The electronic processor is configured to receive, from the first touchless button, a first signal indicative of a first gesture. The electronic processor is configured to, in response to receiving the first signal, switch second touchless button from a dormant mode to an active mode and activate the first visual indicator. The electronic processor is configured to receive, from the second touchless button, a second signal indicative of a second gesture. The electronic processor is configured to, in response to receiving the second signal, execute a function of the scale associated with the second touchless button. The electronic processor is configured to switch the second touchless button from the active mode to the dormant mode.

Abstract: A sound level meter enclosure is herein proposed particularly for facilitating the measurement of environmental noise. The novel enclosure includes a microphone housing which is provided to a bottom surface of the enclosure. The enclosure also has a stand which is configured to provide a clearance between the microphone housing and an installation surface on which the enclosure is to be placed.

Abstract: A method for selecting a vibration motor in a terminal to drive the terminal to vibrate includes: acquiring vibration frequencies of n candidate vibration motors for the terminal, n being an integer greater than 1; calculating the vibration quantity of the terminal driven by each candidate vibration motor respectively according to the vibration frequencies of the n candidate vibration motors; and selecting a target vibration motor suitable for the terminal from the n candidate vibration motors according to the vibration quantities corresponding to the n candidate vibration motors, respectively.

Abstract: This electromagnetic wave detector is provided with light reception graphene and reference graphene that are aligned on an insulating layer, first electrodes and second electrodes that are disposed so as to oppose each other and sandwich the light reception graphene and reference graphene, a gate electrode for applying a gate voltage to the light reception graphene and reference graphene, and a balanced circuit and detection circuit that are connected between the second electrodes. If electromagnetic waves are incident on the light reception graphene, photocarriers will be generated through in-band transition. If electromagnetic waves are incident on the reference graphene, photocarriers will not be generated because of the Pauli blocking effect. In a state where no electromagnetic waves are incident on the light reception graphene or reference graphene, the balanced circuit causes the first electrodes and second electrodes to have the same potential.

Abstract: A circuit for use in a system that includes a detector, wherein the circuit comprises an input terminal to receive a detector signal from the detector external to the circuit, the detector signal to include an error charge corresponding to a leakage current. The circuit further comprises an amplifier coupled to the input terminal to receive input signals corresponding to the detector signal, including the error charge applied to an input of the amplifier. The circuit further comprises a feedback path coupled across the amplifier, wherein the feedback path comprises a first switch coupled across a leakage resistor and to a leakage capacitor for discharging a feedback compensation charge from the leakage capacitor and onto the input of the amplifier to substantially cancel the error charge.

Abstract: In embodiment, a measurement circuit forms a compensation signal that is representative of disturbances that are received while the measurement circuit is not receiving a signal to be measured, then the circuit removes the compensation signal from the measurement signal before measuring the value of the measurement signal.

Abstract: A sensor including at least one sensor chip for detecting a radiation; and an electronics unit with a digital, bidirectional connection line and with a standby control circuit, as well as with an active status line; wherein the connection line is configured to be connected to an external activation unit; and the standby control circuit is configured to determine whether the connection line is externally addressed by the activation unit when the connection line is not addressed by the active status line, and precisely then to place the sensor in a standby mode.

Abstract: A magnetic photomultiplier tube (PMT) system, comprising a PMT. The PMT comprising a photocathode for converting an impinging photon to a photoelectron, an anode, and at least two or a series of oppositely facing pairs of dynodes, wherein each pair is spaced apart from an adjacent pair, a first electric field being generated intermediate at least one pair of oppositely facing dynodes and a second electric field generated intermediate at least one adjacent pairs of dynodes. The PMT system comprises a magnetic field generated by a magnetic system, the PMT being positioned within the magnetic field.

Abstract: A spectrometer having a plasmonic filter/microlens arrangement is provided. The spectrometer can include a controller; an image sensor with a pixel array formed by a plurality of pixels coupled to the controller; and an optical layer over the image sensor. The optical layer can include a plasmonic microlens array having a plurality of microlenses positioned over the spacer layer, each microlens of the plasmonic microlens array focusing light on one of the plurality of pixels, and a plasmonic filter array arranged with the plasmonic microlens array such that light incident on each of the plurality of pixels has a transmission function. The microlenses and plasmonic filters can be formed of a composite structure.

Abstract: An optical system having an OAP mirror collimator is disclosed with a housing, an OAP mirror located within the housing and has an optical axis, a fold plane and a focal point. A fiber optical cable is coupled to the housing and has first and second optical fibers, each having an exit end that form a common end face of the fiber optic cable, wherein the fiber optical cable is rotationally and translationally aligned to the OAP mirror such that the common face is perpendicular to and centered upon the optical axis of the OAP mirror and positioned a fixed distance from the focal point, and wherein the optical axes of the first and second optical fibers are jointly angularly aligned to the fold plane, and the optical axes of the first and second optical fibers deviate from being parallel to the optical axis by no more than 0.15 degrees.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention are directed to lightweight, portable spectrograph systems configured for applications in high-throughput crop phenotyping and plant health assessment, and associated methods.

Abstract: A Multichromatic Calibration (MC) method of at least a spectral sensor which is one of a list comprising at least a spectrometer, a multispectral sensor, a hyperspectral sensor, a spectral camera, a color camera. The method comprises a. generating a plurality of different multichromatic spectra, wherein i. a spectrum from the plurality of different multichromatic spectra contains light intensity measurable by the at least one spectral sensor and by a reference spectral device, and ii. a spectrum from the plurality of different multichromatic spectra contains light centered around at least two different wavelengths and is configured to be integrated during an exposure time of a single measurement from any of the at least one spectral sensor or the reference spectral device; b.

Abstract: Shortwave infrared (SWIR) hyperspectral imaging (HSI) systems comprise a supercontinuum laser source configured to illuminate objects and a receiver comprising a spectrometer configured to receive light reflected from the objects. In some cases, hyperspectral images can be created by raster scanning of the source/receiver across a scene. The supercontinuum laser source provides active illumination to allow collection of hyperspectral imagery during day (including overcast conditions) and night.

Abstract: A photoconductive device that includes a semiconductor substrate, an antenna assembly, and a photoconductive assembly with one or more plasmonic contact electrodes. The photoconductive assembly can be provided with plasmonic contact electrodes that are arranged on the semiconductor substrate in a manner that improves the quantum efficiency of the photoconductive device by plasmonically enhancing the pump absorption into the photo-absorbing regions of semiconductor substrate. In one exemplary embodiment, the photoconductive device is arranged as a photoconductive source and is pumped at telecom pump wavelengths (e.g., 1.0-1.6 ?m) and produces milliwatt-range power levels in the terahertz (THz) frequency range.

Abstract: Some embodiments are directed to an imaging that includes an image sensor; a tunable filter; and a controller operatively connected to the tunable filter and to the image sensor. The imaging system is configured to: tune the tunable filter to a plurality of filter states. The image sensor acquires, at each state of the plurality of states, an image of an object, to provide different images of the object. The controller calculates a state related score, for each state that is indicative of one or more properties of at least one subset of pixels of the at least one image acquired at the state, to provide a plurality of state related scores; and determines, based on at least one of the plurality of state related scores, a desired state of the tunable filter that satisfies a desired state related score criterion; and sets the tunable filter.

Abstract: Apparatuses, systems, and methods for Raman spectroscopy are described. In certain implementations, a spectrometer is provided. The spectrometer may include a plurality of optical elements, comprising an entrance aperture, a collimating element, a volume phase holographic grating, a focusing element, and a detector array. The plurality of optical elements are configured to transfer the light beam from the entrance aperture to the detector array with a high transfer efficiency over a preselected spectral band.

Abstract: An Information Handling System (IHS) display includes an integrated colorimeter that is stored within a front-facing bezel that borders one side of the display screen. The front-facing bezel includes hinged door that conceals a compartment housing a tray. The tray includes a colorimeter and is deployed from the front-facing bezel via the hinged door. With the tray deployed, the colorimeter is raised from the tray and positioned for measuring light emitted by the screen. The deployment of the tray from the front-facing bezel is along an axis perpendicular to the screen and the raising of the colorimeter from the deployed tray is along an axis parallel to the screen. The raised colorimeter may be positioned closer to the screen though movement of the tray along the axis perpendicular to the screen, thus reducing ambient light that reaches a colorimeter sensor of the colorimeter.

Abstract: Provided is a temperature sensor allowing a wire, which is an additional element, to be efficiently connected to the temperature sensor. The temperature includes the additional element and a temperature detecting element. The temperature detecting element includes a heat-sensitive body, a sensor element, and a protective tube. The sensor element has a pair of first electric wires which are electrically connected to the heat-sensitive body. The protective tube accommodates the sensor element. The additional element includes a terminal and a second electric wire that is electrically connected to the terminal. The terminal is responsible for electrical connection between the additional element and the protective tube, and for assembly where the additional element is mated with the protective tube. The terminal in the present invention has a passage which allows the first electric wires to pass therethrough.

Abstract: A sensor for measuring a parameter at a measurement point of a surface by means of direct contact. The sensor includes a sensor element arranged movably in the sensor and a spring element that can resiliently absorb an application force with which sensor element is pressed against the measurement point.

Abstract: To provide a temperature detector without possibility of interruption in temperature detection in detecting a temperature based on a change in oscillation frequency of a crystal element. First and second vibrating regions are formed on a crystal element, the first or the second vibrating region is oscillated with a third harmonic or a fundamental wave by switching switches. A data processing portion obtains frequency change rates of the third harmonic and the fundamental wave in the first vibrating region, and detects the temperature from a difference between them. Further, whether the oscillation of the first vibrating region is abnormal is monitored based on the measurement result of the frequency of the first vibrating region, and when the abnormality is determined, the temperature is detected from similar difference using the second vibrating region.

Abstract: The present invention relates to the use of one or more amplicons as temperature calibrators. In some embodiments, the calibrators may be used to calibrate the temperature of a microfluidic channel in which amplification and/or melt analysis is performed. In some embodiments, the amplicons may be genomic, ultra conserved elements and/or synthetic. The amplicon(s) may have a known or expected melt temperature(s). The calibrators may be added to primers of study or may follow or lead the primers of study in the channel. The amplicon(s) may be amplified and melted, and the temperature(s) at which the amplicon(s) melted may be determined. The measured temperature(s) may be compared to the known temperature(s) at which the amplicon(s) was expected to melt. The difference(s) between the measured and expected temperatures may be used to calibrate/adjust one or more temperature control elements used to control and/or detect the temperature of the channel.

Abstract: A low power consumption multi-contact micro electro-mechanical strain/displacement sensor and miniature autonomous self-contained systems for recording of stress and usage history with direct output suitable for fatigue and load spectrum analysis are provided. In aerospace applications the system can assist in prediction of fatigue of a component subject to mechanical stresses as well as in harmonizing maintenance and overhauls intervals. In alternative applications, i.e. civil structures, general machinery, marine and submarine vessels, etc., the system can autonomously record strain history, strain spectrum or maximum values of the strain over a prolonged period of time using an internal power supply or a power supply combined with an energy harvesting device. The sensor is based on MEMS technology and incorporates a micro array of flexible micro or nano-size cantilevers. The system can have extremely low power consumption while maintaining precision and temperature/humidify independence.

Abstract: A load indicator apparatus which is compact, portable and detachably mounted on the tie-rod. The load indicator apparatus includes a first reference fixture configured for attachment at a first position on the tie-rod, a second fixture configured for attachment at a second position on the tie-rod and an elongation gauge extending between the first reference fixture and the second fixture and configured to measure displacement of the second fixture relative to the first reference fixture during elongation of the tie-rod. A displacement transducer is connected to the second fixture to measure a capacitance value proportional to the loading acting on the tie-rod and transfers it to a load monitoring unit which translates the measured capacitance into a visual load reading and an electronic load output value.

Abstract: Disclosed are a pressure sensor for sensing pressure in a vertical direction, a strain sensor for sensing tension in a horizontal direction, and a method for manufacturing the sensors. The disclosed pressure sensor includes a plurality of pressure sensor units stacked in multiple layers, and at least one of a pressure elastic modulus and an amount of conductive particles per unit area of each of the plurality of pressure sensor units is different from each other.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is an optical cable comprising a support; flexible protective tubes helically wound around the support, each flexible protective tube comprising an optical fiber comprising an optical core; a cladding disposed on the core; and a primary coating external to the cladding; and a deformable material surrounding the optical fiber; an outer jacket surrounding the flexible protective tubes; wherein each optical fiber is about 0.5% to about 1.

Abstract: A torque sensor intended to be mounted on a rotating element in a motor vehicle, the torque sensor including at least one strain gauge disposed on an adhesive material layer. The glass layer rests on a face of a substrate made of a rigid material capable of ensuring frictional retention against the rotating element by its face that is opposite that supporting the glass layer, the torque sensor including detachable and adjustable pressure device surrounding the glass layer and the substrate, the detachable and adjustable pressure device being intended to surround the rotating element and to press the face opposite the substrate against the rotating element.

Abstract: A system and method for monitoring one or more objects that have been restrainedly secured to a vehicle by one or more restraint members. The system includes a plurality of sensors each configured for monitoring one or more of a compressive or tensile stress or strain in one of the one or more restraint members, and a controller for periodically interrogating each of the plurality of sensors to ascertain a value of stress or strain detected by the respective sensor. When a change in the value of stress or strain is indicative of loosened or overtightened restraint members, a mitigation event is triggered.

Abstract: A torque sensor module for a steering device may include: a stator fixed to a designated position of a steering shaft and configured to detect a steering angle; a rotor rotatably fixed in the stator; a signal transmitter configured to transmit torsion information between the stator and the rotator to a Hall effect IC sensor (Hall IC); a printed circuit board having the signal transmitter and the Hall IC mounted thereon; and an ECU (Electronic Control Unit) of an EPS (Electronic Power Steering), mounted on the printed circuit board.

Abstract: A device (110) for performing measurements on a seabed (3), comprises a chamber (111) containing a sensor (120) and a fluid (115) at a constant temperature and at an ambient pressure. This removes the need for calibration in large ranges of both pressure and temperature. In addition, this eliminates the need to wait until the sensor (120) has achieved ambient temperature, and thereby achieves a desired accuracy of the recordings from the sensor while decreasing the operation time. The device preferably comprises an insulating layer (113), an internal temperature stabilising device (130) and a circulating device (131) to ensure a constant temperature and low temperature gradients within the chamber (111). The pressure within chamber (111) may be equalised to ambient pressure by a pressure inlet (112).

Abstract: A center-of-mass height estimation device includes a roll moment calculation unit for calculating roll moment of a sprung portion in a vehicle on the basis of bearing capacities of left and right suspensions provided on the vehicle, a lateral acceleration measurement unit for measuring lateral acceleration, which is acceleration in a width direction of the vehicle, a mass measurement unit for measuring mass of the sprung portion, a transfer function calculation unit for calculating a transfer function of the roll moment with respect to the lateral acceleration, and a center-of-mass height calculation unit for dividing the gain of the transfer function by the mass of the sprung portion to calculate a height from a roll center of the vehicle to a center of mass of the sprung portion.

Abstract: Methods of balancing a workpiece, in which the workpiece is rotated about an axis of rotation. The forces and/or torques that result from an unbalance of the workpiece during the rotation of the workpiece are measured, and material is removed from the workpiece to reduce the unbalance. The method includes removal of material from the rotating workpiece during measuring or as the workpiece is continuously rotated between measuring and material removal.

Abstract: A device for measuring the pressure at the test gas inlet of a mass-spectrometric leak detector, wherein a mass spectrometer is connected to the inlet of a high vacuum pump, having its outlet connected to the inlet of a pre-vacuum pump, wherein the inlet of the pre-vacuum pump is connected to the test gas inlet, and wherein the inlet of the pre-vacuum pump and at least one intermediate inlet of the high vacuum pump are connected to each other by a connection line comprising a flow throttle.

Abstract: In a method of monitoring fluid usage in a fluid system, a proportional control valve is provided, including a valve element operable to control fluid flow from a fluid source to the fluid system. A first pressure upstream of the valve element and a second pressure downstream of the valve element are measured to identify a pressure differential across the valve element. In response to the identified pressure differential, the valve element is adjusted to one of a plurality of flow positions to adjust the pressure differential across the valve element to substantially match a predetermined pressure differential. A flow rate through the proportional control valve is determined based on the first pressure, the second pressure, and the adjusted flow position of the valve element. Based on the determined flow rate over time, an amount of fluid usage in the fluid system is determined.

Abstract: According to at least one aspect, the present disclosure is directed to leak detection. There is pressure sensor for measuring pressure of fluid within a hollow structure, a shut-off valve for controlling fluid flow through the hollow structure, and a processor communicatively coupled to the pressure sensor and to the shut-off valve. The processor can acquire, from the pressure sensor, a first pressure measurement of the fluid while the shut-off valve is in an open state, and a second pressure measurement of the fluid while the shut-off valve is in a closed state. The processor can detect a fluid leak event based on the first and second pressure measurements.

Abstract: A production method and system performing the production method, the method includes detecting integrity of a hermetic seal of a container that is being transported by a conveyor, the container including an elastically deformable cup containing a product and a fluid, and having an open mouth and a deformable lid attached around the open mouth of the cup, the detecting including squeezing the cup to pressurize the fluid contained in the container; and determining with a detector whether the squeezing caused the lid to deform; and when it is determined that the squeezing failed to deform the lid, removing the container from the conveyor

Abstract: A continuous monitoring device for detecting defects in a section of piping and a monitoring system that includes at least two monitoring devices. The monitoring device includes injection means that are capable of generating an electric current at a first end of the section of piping, at least one withdrawal point at the second end of the section of piping, allowing the injected current to be removed via grounding, and a control housing with means for measuring at least one component of the current received by the withdrawal point and analysis means for detecting, on the basis of the measurements obtained by the measurement means, a variation in the received component corresponding to a type of defect in the piping.

Abstract: A computer is configured to enable a rapid, consistent, ply-by-ply, quantitative analytical assessment of various Finite Element Method (FEM) material models based on metrics defined for impact damage. Additionally, the computer is configured to provide a method for determining the accuracy of such FEM material model(s) by comparing the output of those models to non-destructive evaluation (NDE) test data.

Abstract: The input/output characteristic estimation method for testing system comprises; first excitation measurement steps (S3-S5) in which an input obtained by superimposing an excitation input d2 onto a second torque control input ib2 is input to a second dynamometer, and the frequency response i2d2 with respect to the excitation input d2 is measured; second excitation measurement steps (S7-S9) in which input obtained by superimposing excitation input d3 on third torque control input ib3 is input to a third dynamometer, and frequency response i2d3 with respect to the excitation input d3 and the like are measured; and mechanical characteristic estimation steps (S11 and S12) in which the response measured in the first and second excitation measurement steps are used to estimate the transfer function Gt2_i2 and the like from the second or third torque current command signals (i2, i3) to the first or second axial torque detection signals (t2 or t3).

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to a method and an apparatus for monitoring a rolling bearing of an electric motor, wherein the rolling bearing forms a capacitive parasitic antenna, having the following steps of: a. capturing the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by the parasitic antenna in a manner triggered by spark formation in the rolling bearing over a respectively defined period t during operation of the electric motor; b. evaluating the number N of electromagnetic pulses (a, b, c, d, e) received in the spectrum and the amplitude A of said pulses; c. capturing the change in the number N of electromagnetic pulses (a, b, c, d, e) and/or the amplitude A of said pulses, and d. determining whether the increase in the number N and/or in the amplitudes A of the electromagnetic pulses (a, b, c, d, e) increases in a non-linear manner with time.

Abstract: A state detection system for an internal combustion engine is provided. A detection mapping takes, as inputs, rotation waveform variables and a road surface state variable to output a combustion state variable. The rotation waveform variables include information on a difference between cylinders in the rotational speed NE of a crankshaft during periods in which the respective cylinders generate combustion torque. The combustion state variable relates to a level of variations in combustion state among the cylinders. A determination process performed by an execution device determines whether the internal combustion engine is in a predetermined operating state based on an output value of the detection mapping that takes, as inputs, values of the rotation waveform variables and a value of the road surface state variable.

Abstract: A liquid sampling device including a cylindrical body having a first plurality of grooves formed with irregular spacing near a first end of the cylindrical body, and a second plurality of grooves formed with irregular spacing near a second end of the cylindrical body, a top cap having an insertion portion to fit inside the cylindrical body and having a plurality of ridges formed thereon to correspond to the first plurality of grooves, and a cap portion having a suspension member, and a bottom cap having an insertion portion to fit inside the cylindrical body and having a plurality of ridges formed thereon to correspond to the second plurality of grooves, and an external annular flange forming an opening in the bottom cap to pass liquid therethrough, wherein the ridges of the top and bottom caps are configured to form snap fits with the corresponding grooves of the cylindrical body.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of fixing extracellular vesicles. The method includes providing a sample containing extracellular vesicles and contacting the sample with a non-reversible cross-linking agent and, optionally, an aldehyde-containing fixative. Preferably the non-reversible cross-linking agent is 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide. The method also includes imaging the fixed extracellular vesicles for the determination or exclusion of disease or disorder in a clinical sample. The present invention also relates to a kit for fixing extracellular vesicles in a biological sample.

Abstract: The present disclosure is directed to an improved method for distinguishing tissue from an embedding medium, such as paraffin in a formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sample. The method involves the use of fluorescence of naturally-occurring species in tissue to determine the location of the tissue in the embedded sample. An embedded sample is generally excited by light of a selected wavelength, and the fluorescence emission at an emitted wavelength is used to locate the boundary or location of the tissue in the embedded sample.

Abstract: A tissue processing apparatus for processing biological tissue. The tissue processing apparatus includes: an extraction device configured to, when connected to a reagent receptacle, take reagent out from the reagent receptacle for use by the tissue processing apparatus; a tag reader configured to read information from a machine-readable tag.

Abstract: A method includes introducing a fluidic sample into a void volume of a porous material, bringing the porous material into contact with a hydrophilic substrate compatible with a cryogenic Transmission Electron Microscope, separating the porous material from the substrate, and transferring a portion of the sample from the porous material to the substrate between their contact and separation.