Abstract: Atomic layer deposition is utilized to deposit a coating on a membrane. The coated membrane exhibits a tightly bound hydration layer upon exposure to water. The resultant coated membrane is oleophobic.

Abstract: Photoelectrochemical cells including a cathode including alpha-hematite and a metal dichalcogenide, an anode including a conducting polymer, and an electrolyte.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a device for the photocatalytic reduction of a substance with a structured reaction plate and/or a structured housing, wherein the reaction plate has, at least in some regions, a surface which contains a material with negative electron affinity and which can be electronically excited with radiation having a wavelength of ?180 nm.

Abstract: A corrosion resistant anode is provided for oxygen evolution reaction in water including chloride ions. The anode includes: (1) a substrate; (2) a passivation layer coating the substrate; and (3) an electrocatalyst layer coating the passivation layer. Polyanion adjusted alkaline seawater electrolyte for hydrogen generation by electrolysis is also provided.

Abstract: Disclosed are a device and a method for microelectrodeposition through a laser assisted flexible following tool electrode. Localization of electrodeposition and dimensional precision of members are enhanced by using the flexible following tool electrode to restrict a dispersion region of an electric field and a reaction region of electrodeposition, and a complex-shaped member can be deposited by controlling a motion path of the flexible following tool electrode. Since a laser has a high power density, introducing laser irradiation changes an electrode state in a radiated region, accelerates ion diffusion and electron transfer speeds, and increases a deposition rate, thus reducing defects such as pitting and cracking in a deposit, enhancing deposition quality, and achieving fabrication of a micro-part by a synergistic action of both electrochemical energy and laser energy.

Abstract: Provided are electrochemical cells for hydrogen production and methods for hydrogen production. The electrochemical cell and methods use a mediator that may have a reversible redox potential lying outside the onset of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Also, provided are systems for generating hydrogen and water from oxygen and generating water from oxygen and hydrogen.

Abstract: The disclosed technology relates to electrode layers of ion insertion type batteries and to electrode layer materials, wherein the electrode layer materials have a good electronic conductivity and a good ion conductivity, and wherein the electrode layers offer a good rate performance and a high storage capacity. The disclosed technology further relates to ion insertion type battery cells and batteries including such electrode layers, e.g., as an anode. The disclosed technology further relates to methods of forming such electrode layers and to methods for fabricating ion insertion type battery cells and batteries. The electrode layers according to the disclosed technology comprise titanium oxide comprising chlorine and may be deposited by atomic layer deposition at temperatures lower than 150° C.

Abstract: Gallium nitride based semiconductors are provided having one or more passivated surfaces. The surfaces can have a plurality of thiol compounds attached thereto for enhancement of optoelectronic properties and/or solar water splitting properties. The surfaces can also include wherein the surface has been treated with chemical solution for native oxide removal and/or wherein the surface has attached thereto a plurality of nitrides, oxides, insulating compounds, thiol compounds, or a combination thereof to create a treated surface for enhancement of optoelectronic properties and/or solar water splitting properties. Methods of making the gallium nitride based semiconductors are also provided.

Abstract: A system and process for producing carbon nano-materials is disclosed. A carbonate material such as Li2CO3 is heated via a furnace to transform into molten carbonate. CO2 is bubbled into the molten carbonate. The molten carbonate is subjected to electrolysis by passing current from an anode to a cathode. A transition metal nucleation agent is added to result in nucleation sites that grow carbon nano-materials at the cathode. This process separates oxygen at the anode and carbon nano-materials at the cathode. The characteristics of the carbon nano-material may be controlled by varying current density, feed gas, transition metal composition, temperature, viscosity and electrolyte composition.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to methods and devices for use in photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2. In particular, it is disclosed a filter-press photoelectrochemical cell for producing a reduction product from CO2 and a method for the photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2.

Abstract: In an artificial photosynthesis module, a plurality of first electrode portions of a hydrogen generation electrode are disposed side by side with a gap, and each of a plurality of second electrode portions of an oxygen generation electrode is disposed at a gap between the first electrode portions of the hydrogen generation electrode as seen from the hydrogen generation electrode side with respect to the diaphragm. A first photocatalyst layer of at least one first electrode portion of the hydrogen generation electrode or a second photocatalyst layer of at least one of the second electrode portions of the oxygen generation electrode is tilted with respect to a flow direction of an electrolytic aqueous solution, or a projecting part is provided on a surface of the first photocatalyst layer of at least one first electrode portion of the hydrogen generation electrode or a surface of the second photocatalyst layer of at least one second electrode portion of the oxygen generation electrode.

Abstract: A hydrogen desorption method includes a step of bringing a liquid containing an alicyclic saturated hydrocarbon having a tertiary carbon atom bearing a saturated hydrocarbon side chain, a quinone, and an electrolyte into contact with a anode and a step of desorbing hydrogen from the alicyclic saturated hydrocarbon having a tertiary carbon atom bearing a saturated hydrocarbon side chain.

Abstract: A method for reducing carbon dioxide is provided. In the present method, used is an anode electrode comprises a stacked structure of a photoelectric conversion layer, a metal layer, and an InxGa1-xN layer (where 0<x?1). The InxGa1-xN layer is of i-type or n-type. The metal layer is interposed between the photoelectric conversion layer and the InxGa1-xN layer. When irradiating the anode electrode with light, a first light part included in the light is absorbed by the InxGa1-xN layer and a second light part included in the light travels through the InxGa1-xN layer. The second light part is absorbed by the photoelectric conversion layer to generate electric power in the photoelectric conversion layer. The second light part has a longer wavelength than the first light part. The carbon dioxide contained in the first electrolyte solution is reduced on the cathode electrode.

Abstract: Provided is a method for generating hydrogen. The method comprising (a) preparing a hydrogen generation device comprising a container, a photo-semiconductor electrode comprising a substrate, a light-blocking first conductive layer, and a first semiconductor photocatalyst layer, a counter electrode, a conductive wire for electrically connecting the first conductive layer to the counter electrode, and a liquid stored in the container, and (b) irradiating the first semiconductor photocatalyst layer with light to generate hydrogen on the counter electrode. The first conductive layer is interposed between the substrate and the first semiconductor photocatalyst layer. At least a part of the first semiconductor photocatalyst layer is in contact with the liquid. At least a part of the counter electrode is in contact with the liquid. The liquid is selected from the group consisting of an electrolyte aqueous solution and water. The substrate is formed of a resin.

Abstract: A solid-state PEC includes mixed ionic and electronic conducting oxides that allow it to operate at temperatures significantly above ambient utilizing both the light and thermal energy available from concentrated sunlight to dissociate water vapor. The solid-state PEC has a semiconductor light absorber coated with a thin MIEC oxide for improved catalytic activity, electrochemical stability and ionic conduction, which is located between the gas phase and the semiconductor light absorber. As a result, the MIEC oxide provides a facile path for minority carriers to reach the water vapor as well as a path for the ionic carriers to reach the solid electrolyte. Elevated temperature operation allows reasonable band misalignments at the interfaces to be overcome, reduces the required overpotential, and facilitates rapid product diffusion away from the surface.

Abstract: The disclosed manufacturing method of titanium oxide electrode comprises: preparing starting materials for titanium oxide, heat-treating the starting materials of titanium oxide, and electro-reducing the heat-treated starting materials of titanium oxide. According to this method, an anode having excellent active oxygen species production efficiency and excellent electrical properties can be manufactured using inexpensive titanium oxide.

Abstract: Techniques for photocatalytic hydrogen generation are provided. In one aspect, a hydrogen producing cell is provided. The hydrogen producing cell includes an anode electrode; a photocatalytic material adjacent to the anode electrode; a solid electrolyte adjacent to a side of the photocatalytic material opposite the anode electrode; and a cathode electrode adjacent to a side of the solid electrolyte opposite the photocatalytic material. A solar hydrogen producing system including at least one solar concentrating assembly having the hydrogen producing cell, and a method for producing hydrogen using the hydrogen producing cell are also provided.

Abstract: There is provided a hydrogen production device which is high in the light use efficiency and can produce hydrogen with high efficiency without decreasing the hydrogen generation rate.

Abstract: Provided is an element with stable electrical characteristics or a device including plural kinds of elements with stable electrical characteristics. The semiconductor device includes a first insulator, a transistor over the first insulator, a second insulator over the transistor, and a third insulator over the second insulator. The second insulator includes an opening reaching the first insulator. The opening is filled with a fourth insulator. The first insulator, the third insulator, and the fourth insulator each have a lower hydrogen-transmitting property than the second insulator.

Abstract: In a carbon dioxide reduction method according to the present disclose, used is a carbon dioxide reduction device comprising a cathode container in which a first electrolyte containing carbon dioxide is stored, an anode container in which a second electrolyte is stored, a solid electrolyte membrane, a condenser, a cathode electrode having a metal or a metal compound on the surface thereof, and anode electrode having a region formed of a nitride semiconductor layer in which a GaN layer and an AlxGa1-xN layer are stacked. The anode electrode is irradiated with light condensed by the condenser and having a wavelength of not more than 360 nanometers to reduce the carbon dioxide contained in the first electrolyte on the cathode electrode.

Abstract: The carbon dioxide reducing method using light includes: (a) preparing a carbon dioxide reducing cell including: a cathode chamber that holds first electrolytic solution containing carbon dioxide; an anode chamber that holds second electrolytic solution; a proton exchange membrane inserted between the cathode and anode chambers; a cathode set inside the cathode chamber to contact the first electrolytic solution, and the cathode having copper, gold, silver, indium, etc. on the cathode; and an anode set inside the anode chamber to contact the second electrolytic solution, the anode having first semiconductor layer constituted by nitride semiconductor including AlxGa1-xN layer wherein 0?x?0.

Abstract: Disclosed is an anode electrode including a nitride semiconductor layer. This nitride semiconductor layer includes an AlxGa1-xN layer (0<x?0.25), an AlyGa1-yN layer (0?y?x), and a GaN layer. The AlyGa1-yN layer is interposed between the AlxGa1-xN layer and the GaN layer. The value of x is fixed in the thickness direction of the AlxGa1-xN layer. The value of y decreases from the interface with the AlxGa1-xN layer f toward the interface with the GaN layer. The AlxGa1-xN layer is irradiated with light having a wavelength of 360 nm or less so as to reduce carbon dioxide.

Abstract: This disclosure relates to photovoltaic and photoelectrosynthetic cells, devices, methods of making and using the same.

Abstract: A gas generating device for generating an oxygen gas and/or a hydrogen gas from an electrolytic solution containing water, including an anode electrode, a cathode electrode, a plurality of through holes and a gas containing unit. The anode electrode (photocatalyst supporting electrode) has a photocatalyst-containing layer containing a photocatalyst producing an oxygen gas from the electrolytic solution by a photocatalytic reaction. The cathode electrode produces a hydrogen gas from electrons and hydrogen ions that are generated in the electrolytic solution by the photocatalytic reaction at the photocatalyst-containing layer. The through holes are formed on at least one of the anode electrode and the cathode electrode, and the through holes allow the produced oxygen gas or hydrogen gas to pass therethrough, but do not allow the electrolytic solution to pass therethrough. The gas containing unit holds the oxygen gas or hydrogen gas that has passed through the through holes.

Abstract: A hydrogen production device of the present invention includes a photoelectric conversion portion having a light-receiving surface and a back surface, a first electrolysis electrode provided on the back surface, and a second electrolysis electrode provided on the back surface. As a result of reception of light by the photoelectric conversion portion, a potential difference is generated between a first area on the back surface and a second area on the back surface, the first area becomes electrically connected to the first electrolysis electrode, and the second area becomes electrically connected to the second electrolysis electrode.

Abstract: The object of the present invention is to provide a method for preparing a nano-sheet array structure of a Group V-VI semiconductor, comprising: (A) providing an electrolyte containing a hydrogen ion and disposing an auxiliary electrode and a working electrode in the electrolyte, wherein the working electrode comprises a Group V-VI semiconductor bulk; and (B) applying a redox reaction bias to the auxiliary electrode and the working electrode to form a nano-sheet array structure on the bulk.

Abstract: A method for the photoelectrocatalytic production of hydrogen and oxygen from water, is carried out by: (a) providing a photohydride proton reduction catalyst and a photoanode having water oxidation catalyst operatively associated therewith, both in an aquous electrolyte solution,wherein the photohydride proton reduction catalyst comprises a single-component light absorbing catalytic metal complex of the formula AXB, wherein A is a coordinated aromatic group, X is a metal, and B is a bidentate organic ligand; and (b) illuminating the photoanode and the photohydride proton reduction catalyst with visible light to generate O2 by the action of the water oxidation catalyst and H2 by the action of the photohydride proton reduction catalyst. Constructs and apparatus useful for carrying out the method are also described.

Abstract: Provided is a semiconductor photoelectrode comprising a first conductive layer; a first n-type semiconductor layer disposed on the first conductive layer; and a second conductive layer covering the first n-type semiconductor layer. The first n-type semiconductor layer has a first n-type surface region and a second n-type surface region. The first n-type surface region is in contact with the first conductive layer. The second n-type surface region is in contact with the second conductive layer. The first n-type semiconductor layer is formed of at least one selected from the group consisting of a nitride semiconductor and an oxynitride semiconductor. The second conductive layer is light-transmissive. The second conductive layer is formed of a p-type oxide conductor.

Abstract: The present invention provides a photoelectrochemical cell. The photoelectrochemical cell comprises a semiconductor photoelectrode which functions as a cathode electrode; a counter electrode which functions as an anode electrode; an electrolyte aqueous solution which is in contact with surfaces of the semiconductor photoelectrode and the counter electrode; and a container containing the semiconductor photoelectrode, the counter electrode, and the electrolyte aqueous solution. The semiconductor photoelectrode includes: a first conductive layer; an n-type semiconductor layer disposed on the first conductive layer; and a second conductive layer which completely covers a surface of the n-type semiconductor layer. The counter electrode is electrically connected to the first conductive layer. The second conductive layer is light-transmissive. The second conductive layer functions as a light incident surface.

Abstract: An apparatus for the electrolytic splitting of water into hydrogen and/or oxygen, the apparatus comprising: (i) at least one lithographically-patternable substrate having a surface; (ii) a plurality of microscaled catalytic electrodes embedded in said surface; (iii) at least one counter electrode in proximity to but not on said surface; (iv) means for collecting evolved hydrogen and/or oxygen gas; (v) electrical powering means for applying a voltage across said plurality of microscaled catalytic electrodes and said at least one counter electrode; and (vi) a container for holding an aqueous electrolyte and housing said plurality of microscaled catalytic electrodes and said at least one counter electrode. Electrolytic processes using the above electrolytic apparatus or functional mimics thereof are also described.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method for the photoelectrochemical production of hydrogen and oxygen and for the simultaneously or separately conducted photoelectrical/photovoltaic production of electricity, characterized in that water is brought into contact with silicides, while applying light at the same time, or the contact with water can be foregone if electricity is produced exclusively. The invention enables the production of hydrogen and oxygen in a simple way directly from water, wherein the use of UV light and cost-intensive catalysts can be foregone.

Abstract: Provided is a semiconductor photoelectrode comprising a conductive substrate; a first semiconductor photocatalyst layer provided on a surface of the conductive substrate; a second semiconductor photocatalyst layer provided on a surface of the first semiconductor photocatalyst layer. The semiconductor photoelectrode has a plurality of pillar protrusions on the surface thereof. A surface of each of the pillar protrusions is formed of the second semiconductor photocatalyst layer.

Abstract: A system includes an ionic exchange conduit through which a flow of photosynthetic biomass is drawn capturing an electrical charge which is used to alternately power a photonic activated reservoir housing a living photosynthetic biomass suspended in a flowing liquid medium which self generates an electrical charge as it migrates towards and through a cathode separated from an anode by a membrane. Upon electrical transfer through the circuit an electrolysis process begins and releases hydrogen and oxygen into enclosed atmosphere chambers where these separated gases can be captured for use in a fuel cell.

Abstract: Methods for the photoreduction of molecules are provided. The methods use diamond having a negative electron affinity as a photocatalyst, taking advantage of its ability to act as a solid-state electron emitter that is capable of inducing reductions without the need for reactants to adsorb onto its surface. The methods comprise illuminating a fluid sample comprising the molecules to be reduced and hydrogen surface-terminated diamond having a negative electron affinity with light comprising a wavelength that induces the emission of electrons from the diamond directly into the fluid sample. The emitted electrons induce the reduction of the molecules to form a reduction product.

Abstract: The invention relates to various embodiments of an environmentally beneficial method for reducing carbon dioxide. The methods in accordance with the invention include electrochemically or photoelectrochemically reducing the carbon dioxide in a divided electrochemical cell that includes an anode, e.g., an inert metal counterelectrode, in one cell compartment and a metal or p-type semiconductor cathode electrode in another cell compartment that also contains an aqueous solution of an electrolyte and a catalyst of one or more substituted or unsubstituted aromatic amines to produce therein a reduced organic product.

Abstract: The invention relates to a photoelectrochemical cell 100 for light-driven production of hydrogen and oxygen, especially from water or another electrolyte based on aqueous solution, having a photoelectric layer structure 1 and an electrochemical layer structure 2 in a layer construction 40, where—the photoelectric layer structure 1 for absorption of light 3 uninfluenced by the electrolyte 10 forms a front side 41 of the layer structure 40, and—the electrochemical layer structure 2, for accommodation of the electrolyte 10, forms a reverse side 42 of the layer construction 40, and—a conductive and corrosion-inhibiting coupling layer 13 forms electrical contact between the photoelectric layer structure 1 and the electrochemical layer structure 2 in the layer construction 40, where—the electrochemical layer structure 2 has an electrode structure of a front electrode 21 and an electrode structure of a rear electrode 22, between which is arranged an ion exchange layer 61 such that an integrated layer construction 40

Abstract: A process for oxidizing water using amorphous cobalt tungstate is disclosed. A plurality of amorphous cobalt tungstate nanoparticles are supported on an electrode and are able to catalytically interact with water molecules generating oxygen. The catalyst can be used as part of a electrochemical or photo-electrochemical cell for the generation of electrical energy.

Abstract: A solid-state PEC includes mixed ionic and electronic conducting oxides that allow it to operate at temperatures significantly above ambient utilizing both the light and thermal energy available from concentrated sunlight to dissociate water vapor. The solid-state PEC has a semiconductor light absorber coated with a thin MIEC oxide for improved catalytic activity, electrochemical stability and ionic conduction, which is located between the gas phase and the semiconductor light absorber. As a result, the MIEC oxide provides a facile path for minority carriers to reach the water vapor as well as a path for the ionic carriers to reach the solid electrolyte. Elevated temperature operation allows reasonable band misalignments at the interfaces to be overcome, reduces the required overpotential, and facilitates rapid product diffusion away from the surface.

Abstract: A solar-driven apparatus is provided having: a cavity having at least one optical window for collecting electromagnetic radiation associated with solar energy impinging on said at least one optical window; a reaction assembly located inside the cavity and adapted to enable carrying out electrolysis process of at least one raw fluid utilizing energy derived partially from the solar radiation and partially from an electric source; one or more ingress units operative to allow introduction of the raw fluid into the apparatus; and one or more egress units operative to allow exit of the electrolysis process' products from the solar driven apparatus.

Abstract: The present disclosure provides methods for producing chitosan derivatives and the derivatives formed by these methods. The processes of the present disclosure utilize electrochemical methods to functionalize and/or modify amine and/or hydroxyl groups present on chitosan, to form new derivatives. In embodiments, a nitro-chitosan derivative may be prepared. The altered cationic affinity of these derivatives make them excellent candidates for environmental applications, including water and waste treatments, and fertilizers.

Abstract: In this proposal, we provide a highly original solution to resolve/decompose carbon dioxide into useful by-products which provide industrial values to businesses around the world and meanwhile carbon emission control is the most importance. By taking high energy of light particles from Ultraviolet light, our innovational equation, (uv)+CO2+(AgM)+2H2?2H2O+(4e??)+C4+(AgM)+[4e??]?C+(AgM), is designed to break the quantum effect of electron bond between carbon and oxygen, hence to restore carbon and release oxygen to achieve reduction of green house gas.

Abstract: The present invention provides an electrode for water-splitting reaction that is capable of increasing conductive path between a photocatalyst layer and a current collecting layer without inhibiting light absorption by photocatalyst, which comprises: a photocatalyst layer 10; a current collecting layer 30; and a contact layer 20 that contains semiconductor or good conductor and is provided between the photocatalyst layer 10 and the current collecting layer 30, wherein the contact layer 20 is provided along the surface shape of the photocatalyst layer 10 at the current collecting layer 30 side of the photocatalyst layer 10.

Abstract: Disclosed is a method for producing an alcohol using a device for reducing carbon dioxide by light energy. In this device, a cathode electrode includes copper or a copper compound, and an anode electrode includes a region including a nitride semiconductor layer in which an AlxGa1-xN layer (0<x?1) and a GaN layer are laminated. A first electrolytic solution consisting of an aqueous potassium chloride solution (aqueous KCl solution) is contained in a cathode chamber in which the cathode electrode is placed. A second electrolytic solution including an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (aqueous NaOH solution) is contained in an anode chamber in which the anode electrode is placed.

Abstract: Disclosed is an anode electrode including a nitride semiconductor layer. This nitride semiconductor layer includes an AlxGa1-xN layer (0<x?0.25), an AlyGa1-yN layer (0?y?x), and a GaN layer. The AlyGa1-yN layer is interposed between the AlxGa1-xN layer and the GaN layer. The value of x is fixed in the thickness direction of the AlxGa1-xN layer. The value of y decreases from the interface with the AlxGa1-xN layer f toward the interface with the GaN layer. The AlxGa1-xN layer is irradiated with light having a wavelength of 360 nm or less so as to reduce carbon dioxide.

Abstract: The carbon dioxide reducing method using light includes: (a) preparing a carbon dioxide reducing cell including: a cathode chamber that holds first electrolytic solution containing carbon dioxide; an anode chamber that holds second electrolytic solution; a proton exchange membrane inserted between the cathode and anode chambers; a cathode set inside the cathode chamber to contact the first electrolytic solution, and the cathode having copper, gold, silver, indium, etc. on the cathode; and an anode set inside the anode chamber to contact the second electrolytic solution, the anode having first semiconductor layer constituted by nitride semiconductor including AlxGa1-xN layer wherein 0?x?0.

Abstract: A photoactive article includes a substrate including a semiconductor to absorb light and to produce a plurality of charge carriers; a dielectric layer disposed on the substrate; a conductive member disposed on the dielectric layer and opposing the substrate such that the dielectric layer is exposed by the conductive member, the conductive member to receive a portion of the plurality of charge carriers from the substrate; and an electrolyte disposed on the dielectric layer and the conductive member. Making a photoactive article includes forming a dielectric layer on a substrate by rapid thermal oxidation, the dielectric layer comprising an oxide of a semiconductor; and forming a conductive member disposed on the dielectric layer.

Abstract: The invention provides methods for producing hydrogen and oxygen, comprising the steps of: (i) oxidising a mediator at a working electrode to yield an oxidised mediator, and reducing protons at a counter electrode to yield hydrogen; and (ii) reducing an oxidised mediator at a working electrode to yield a mediator, and oxidising water at a counter electrode to yield oxygen. wherein the oxygen generation step is performed non-simultaneously to the hydrogen generation step, and the oxidised mediator of step (i) is used as the oxidised mediator of step (ii), or the mediator of step (ii) is used as the mediator of step (i), and the mediator has a reversible redox wave lying between the onset of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER).

Abstract: The present invention discloses the use of a metal nanoparticle which comprises at least one semiconductor attached to it, wherein the at least one semiconductor is an atomic quantum cluster (AQC) consisting of between 2 and 55 zero-valent transition metal atoms, as photocatalysts in photocatalytic processes and applications thereof.

Abstract: The present invention provides ruthenium or osmium complexes and their uses as a catalyst for catalytic water oxidation. Another aspect of the invention provides an electrode and photo-electrochemical cells for electrolysis of water molecules.

Abstract: Ketones, specifically Methyl ethyl ketone (“MEK”) and octanedione, may be formed from six carbon sugars. This process involves obtaining a quantity of a six carbon sugar and then reacting the sugar to form levulinic acid and formic acid. The levulinic acid and formic acid are then converted to an alkali metal levulinate and an alkali metal formate (such as, for example, sodium levulinate and sodium formate.) The alkali metal levulinate is placed in an anolyte along with hydrogen gas that is used in an electrolytic cell. The alkali metal levulinate within the anolyte is decarboxylated to form MEK radicals, wherein the MEK radicals react with hydrogen gas to form MEK, or MEK radicals react with each other to form octanedione. The alkali metal formate may also be decarboxylated in the cell, thereby forming hydrogen radicals that react with the MEK radicals to form MEK.