Abstract: An intersecting module is provided. The intersecting module includes a plurality of internal ventilating plates. The internal ventilating plates have a plurality of orifices and include a first group of internal ventilating plates, a second group of internal ventilating plates, and a third group of internal ventilating plates arranged along a longitudinal direction. The second group of internal ventilating plates are positioned between the first group of internal ventilating plates and the third group of internal ventilating plates in the longitudinal direction. The first group of internal ventilating plates and the second group of internal ventilating plates are arranged in a staggered manner, and the second group of internal ventilating plates and the third group of internal ventilating plates are also arranged in a staggered manner.

Abstract: The present invention relates, on one hand, to a metal cementing apparatus (1) formed by a vessel (2) with a liquid phase formed by a solution (3) containing noble metal, and a solid phase formed by a cementing metal or a less noble metal in contact with the solution (3), where one of said phases moves at a high speed with respect to the other one, and the difference in speeds allows the cementation of the noble metal on the solid phase, and the simultaneous detachment and separation thereof, and comprises means for generating the movement of at least the phase with the high speed and removing means for removing the precipitated noble metal.

Abstract: A method is provided that determines a relative phase change of a local oscillator signal. A method of determining a relative phase change of a RF signal is also provided. Generally, the methods described ensure that the effect of a swept local oscillator frequency on the measurements can be identified, particularly quantified. Hence, the effect can be considered in the error correction model applied later such that the measurement equipment can be calibrated appropriately.

Abstract: This disclosure describes systems, methods, and apparatus for counter-current solids leaching. A multi-stage countercurrent leaching chamber can include a top and bottom end, a barren liquor input, two or more regions for countercurrent mixing, and a barren solids output. The input can be configured to receive barren liquor. The two or more regions for countercurrent mixing and separation can be configured to mix and separate liquid and solid phases. The barren solids output can be configured to collect and discharge barren solids from the bottom end of the multi-stage countercurrent leaching chamber. A fluidized bed chamber and clarifier chamber can also be included, where the fluidized bed receives a fluidizable slurry of pregnant solids and the clarifier chamber aids in separating liquids from solids passing from a top of the fluidized bed chamber to the top end of the multi-stage countercurrent leaching chamber.

Abstract: A process for recovery of precious metals from ores or concentrates containing refractory carbonaceous material by cyanidation leaching. The process involves addition to the ores or concentrates at least one cationic surfactant before or during the addition of cyanide-containing solution. The agent enables the recovery of precious metals by cyanidation from high preg-robbing carbonaceous ores and improves the recovery of precious metals by cyanidation from medium to low preg-robbing carbonaceous ores. The agent also prevents froth and foaming formation during the cyanidation process.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates generally to recycling lead-acid batteries, and more specifically, relates to purifying and recycling the lead content from lead-acid batteries. A lead recovery system includes a first reactor configured to receive and mix a lead-bearing material and a first carboxylate source to yield a first mixture, wherein the first mixture includes a first lead carboxylate that is dissolved in a liquid component of the first mixture. The system includes a second reactor configured to receive and mix the liquid component of the first mixture and a second carboxylate source to yield a second mixture, wherein the second mixture includes solid particles of a second lead carboxylate. The system includes a third reactor configured to receive and mix the solid particles of the second lead carboxylate and a hydroxide solution to yield a third mixture, wherein the third mixture includes solid particles of lead oxide.

Abstract: Provided is an efficient method for determining the completion of discharging waste batteries, the method being capable of accurately identifying the discharging states of the charge remaining in the waste batteries and appropriately determining the completion of discharging without measuring the residual voltage of each of the waste batteries. The method for determining the completion of discharging waste batteries according to the present invention is characterized in that after immersing the waste batteries in a conductive liquid, the concentration of hydrogen gas produced from the liquid is measured, thereby determining the completion of discharging the charge remaining in the waste batteries.

Abstract: This invention relates to a process for obtaining metal values, typically base metals, platinum or gold from a feed material. In a first step of the process of the invention, feed material containing metal values is ground to a particle size d90 of 100 microns or less to form an ultra fine pulp. In a second step of the process of the invention, the ultra fine ground pulp from the first step is oxygenated by pumping it in multiple passes through an in-line high shear static oxygenation device (30), while re-circulating it on a tank (28) or any other vessel. The process of the invention results in a significant reduction in the required leach time, improved recoveries, reduced cyanide consumptions, a steadier gold tail, as well as reduced capital and operational expenditure.

Abstract: It is an object to provide a method and an apparatus for recovering indium, the method and apparatus ensuring that it is unnecessary to recover indium in the form of indium hydroxide, indium can be recovered easily by a filter or the like without handling inferiors and also, the recovery rate of indium is greatly improved. The method includes immersing a precipitation-inducing metal which includes zinc and is made into the form of a solid such that any part coming into view three-dimensionally has a longitudinal length of 2.5 to 10 mm in an etching waste solution containing at least indium and ferric chloride and allowed to stand, thereby allowing indium contained in the etching waste solution to precipitate on the surface of the precipitation-inducing metal based on a difference in ionization tendency between zinc and indium, and detaching the indium precipitated on the surface of the precipitation-inducing metal to recover it.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention include methods and systems for leaching material from an object. Examples include leaching ceramic from metallic components. Other embodiments include apparatuses, systems, devices, hardware, methods, and combinations for leaching systems. Further embodiments, forms, features, aspects, benefits, and advantages of the present application shall become apparent from the description and figures provided herewith.

Abstract: An all-wet process for reclaiming the lead content of impure electrode paste or slime from discarded lead batteries and/or lead minerals, in form of high purity lead compound, comprises a) suspending the impure lead containing material in a lead sulphate dissolving aqueous solution of a salt belonging to the group composed of the acetates of sodium, potassium and ammonium; b) adding to the suspension sulphuric acid in an amount sufficient to convert all lead oxides to lead sulphate soluble in the acetate salt solution and slowly adding to the suspension either hydrogen peroxide or a sulphite or bubbling sulphurous anhydride through it, in a measure adapted to reduce any lead dioxide to lead oxide converted eventually to soluble lead sulphate by the sulphuric acid; c) separating a limpid acetate salt solution containing dissolved lead sulphate from a solid phase residue including all undissolved compounds and impurities; d) adding to the separated solution of lead sulphate either carbonate or hydroxide of the

Abstract: A tank assembly for holding first and second removal materials, comprising a first container and a second container. The first container defines a first chamber. The second container defines a second chamber. The second container is arranged within the first chamber to define a lower portion, an upper portion, and an annular portion of the first chamber. The second chamber comprises a lower portion and a filter portion. The filter portion of the second chamber is adapted to contain the first removal material. The annular portion of the first chamber is adapted to contain the second removal material.

Abstract: Method and apparatus for determining the ore content and for further treatment of the ore, the ore content of the crushed ore being monitored in the method on-line and the information on the ore content being utilized in the further treatment of the ore.

Abstract: The present invention relates generally to a process for recovering copper and other metal values from metal-containing materials using controlled, super-fine grinding and medium temperature pressure leaching. Processes embodying aspects of the present invention may be beneficial for recovering a variety of metals such as copper, gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, rhenium, zinc, uranium, and platinum group metals, from metal-bearing materials, and find particular utility in connection with the extraction of copper from copper sulfide ores and concentrates.

Abstract: A process for the oxidative leaching of sulphide mineral species, the method characterized by the method steps of: leaching a slurry containing the mineral species in one or more reaction vessels; circulating a stream of leach liquor to a flash cooler; flashing the liquor in the flash cooler at a pressure less than atmospheric pressure so as to dissipate heat; and recirculating the liquor to the or each reaction vessel.

Abstract: A method of removing contaminate material from a flowable material, comprising the following steps. A first container defining a first chamber is provided. A second container defining a second chamber is arranged within the first chamber. A first removal material is arranged within the second chamber. A second removal material is arranged within the first chamber. The flowable material is caused to flow along a removal path through the first removal material to remove a first portion of the contaminate material and through the second removal material to remove a second portion of the contaminate material.

Abstract: A circuit configuration for a metal solvent extraction plant comprising: A) an extraction section for extracting metal ions from an aqueous leach solution containing the metal ions with an organic solvent solution containing at least one metal extraction reagent, wherein the extraction section consists of three countercurrent extraction stages; and B) a stripping section consisting of one stripping stage for stripping the metal ions from the metal extraction reagent.

Abstract: The process of the present invention recovers platinum group metal(s), such as platinum and palladium, from PGM-containing materials containing base metals, such as copper and nickel. The process controls sulfur levels by using solvent extraction 306 to remove acid in the nickel recovery circuit. The acid product 326 can then be neutralized and/or recycled as desired.

Abstract: A removal system for removing contaminate material from a flowable material. The removal system comprises a first and second containers and first and second removal material. The first container defines a first chamber. The second container defines a second chamber and is located within the first chamber. The first removal material is located in the second chamber. The second removal material is located in the first chamber. The flowable material flows along a removal path through the first removal material to remove a first portion of the contaminate material from the flowable material and through the second removal material to remove a second portion of the contaminate material from the flowable material.

Abstract: A silver recovery and monitoring system including a sensor for transmitting a silver concentration signal in response to the concentration of silver in a fluid, means for determining whether the silver concentration signal indicates the concentration of silver in the fluid to be above a predetermined silver level and for initiating a silver alert signal in response to a determination that the silver concentration signal indicates the concentration of silver in the fluid to be above the predetermined silver level, and means for transmitting a notification signal to a silver monitoring station in response to the silver alert signal.

Abstract: A system and process for recovering copper from a copper-containing ore, concentrate, or other copper-bearing material to produce high quality cathode copper from a leach solution without the use of copper solvent extraction techniques or apparatus. A process for recovering copper from a copper-containing ore generally includes the steps of providing a feed stream containing comminuted copper-containing ore, concentrate, or other copper-bearing material, leaching the feed stream to yield a copper-containing solution, conditioning the copper-containing solution through one or more physical or chemical conditioning steps, and electrowinning copper directly from the copper-containing solution, without subjecting the copper-containing solution to solvent extraction.

Abstract: A method and systems are provided for extracting heavy metal from glass waste. Glass is initially crushed to a diameter size of about 2 millimeters. The glass is then added to a tank having a solution of water and acid, where the acid removes metal from the surface of the glass particles. The solution is then separated from the glass particles. In some embodiments, the glass particles are also rinsed with water and the rinsed water is treated to remove any residual contaminates. In more embodiments, the solution can be reused for a number of iterations that treat glass waste in order to extract heavy metal from the glass waste.

Abstract: A method and systems are provided for extracting heavy metal from glass waste. Glass is initially crushed to a diameter size between about 10 nanometers and about 2 millimeters. The glass is then added to a tank having a solution of water and acid, where the acid removes metal from the surface of the glass particles. In some embodiments, the solution and glass particles are elevated to a configurable temperature above ambient temperature and circulated for a configurable period of time. The solution is then separated from the glass particles. In some embodiments, the glass particles are then rinsed while in transit to a final destination or in a separate rinsing tank.

Abstract: The present invention concerns equipment for the leaching of solid matter from a sludge with the aid of a gas containing oxygen, the said equipment comprising a tall reactor (1) equipped with a central pipe (2) and from the reactor bottom (3), an upward-directed double-action mixer (5). The mixer is situated in the vicinity of the lower edge of the central pipe: the upper blades (13) of the mixer produce a downward suction flow from the central pipe, and the lower blades (14) disperse the gas to be fed into the sludge in the form of small bubbles, thereby preventing the solid matter from settling to the bottom of the reactor.

Abstract: A removal system for removing a waste metal from a waste solution. The removal system comprises outer and inner containers, inlet, intermediate, and outlet conduits, and first and second reaction media. The inner container defines an upper wall portion and is located within the outer container. The inlet conduit allows fluid to flow to the inner chamber and extends through the upper wall portion of the inner container. The intermediate conduit allows fluid flow from the inner chamber to the outer chamber. The outlet conduit allows fluid flow out of the outer chamber. The first reaction media located in the inner container. The second reaction media located in the outer container. The waste solution is forced along a removal path through the inlet conduit, the first reaction media, the intermediate conduit, the second reaction media, and the outlet conduit.

Abstract: A system and process for recovering copper from a copper-containing ore, concentrate, or other copper-bearing material to produce high quality cathode copper from a leach solution without the use of copper solvent extraction techniques or apparatus. A process for recovering copper from a copper-containing ore generally includes the steps of providing a feed stream containing comminuted copper-containing ore, concentrate, or other copper-bearing material, leaching the feed stream to yield a copper-containing solution, conditioning the copper-containing solution through one or more physical or chemical conditioning steps, and electrowinning copper directly from the copper-containing solution, without subjecting the copper-containing solution to solvent extraction.

Abstract: The hydrostatic pressure differential existing in a column of fluent material conveyed through an excavated passage possessing a downward entrance run and upward return run facilitates hydrometallugical processing including metals recovery and treatment of ores. Conveyance of the fluent material through the passage is facilitated by appropriate means including a difference in elevation between the inlet and outlet and/or gaseous expansion applied proximate the bottom of the return run. Cooling of effluent proximate the outlet may be utilized consequent to application of heat during processing as in roasting ore. The passage is excavated through rock fully capable of containing the pressures anticipated and has an interior casing which seals the rock porosity. Iron reinforced concrete is recommended in appropriate wall thicknesses.

Abstract: A circuit configuration for a metal solvent extraction plant comprising:

Abstract: A method and apparatus for solar heating a leach solution prior to its distribution over an ore heap. The apparatus includes a heat absorbing mat having a series of individual heat absorbing tubes joined to each other by heat reflecting panels. The heat reflecting panels and heat absorbing tubes collect and transfer solar energy to the leach solution passing through the heat absorbing tubes. The temperature of the leach solution passing through the heat absorbing tubes is elevated above ambient prior to the leach solution being distributed to a series of emitter tubes positioned on top of the ore heap. The array of emitter tubes are connected to the heat absorbing mats such that the leach solution is heated within the mat and immediately distributed to the emitter tubes for distribution onto the ore heap.

Abstract: An apparatus for leaching zinc concentrates which comprises: a pressure vessel for charging therein a solution containing at least free sulfuric acid and iron ions, a stirrer which is disposed in the pressure vessel, an oxygen gas supply pipe that extends into the pressure vessel from the outside of the pressure vessel, the oxygen gas supply pipe having an oxygen gas inlet port which opens below the stirrer, and a discharge pipe through which an iron-containing, acidic solution or a slurry that results from the reaction of said solution containing at least free sulfuric acid and iron ions is discharged to the outside of the pressure vessel, the discharge pipe having a drain port which is open in a lower part of said pressure vessel.

Abstract: The invention relates to an apparatus for the heating of flowing material containing finely divided solids, such as concentrate slurry containing precious metals and/or precious minerals, up to a desired temperature range, for instance the temperature range applied in a treatment process of said material, said apparatus comprising means for feeding and removing the medium used for heating as well as means for feeding and removing the material to be heated in and out of the apparatus. According to the invention, both the flowing space of the material to be heated and the flow channels (3) of the heating medium are installed in an essentially vertical position, so that the material to be heated can be fed to the bottom part of the flowing space, and the heating medium can be fed to the top part of the flow channels (3), and that in the feed chamber (5) of the material to be heated, there are installed means (9) for cleaning the feed chamber (5).

Abstract: It is possible to activate a physical reaction and/or a chemical reaction in a medium, comprising a solution and solid matter that is freely dispersed in said solution, by placing the mixture in a reactor that has two walls which are located opposite close to each other, whereby the mixture fills the space in between the two walls and forms therein a thin long layer in a direction that is defined by a geometrical axis parallel to the walls, by activating an agitating means that are disposed outside the reactor and capable of acting through said walls on an area of agitation covering part of the layer and having a small dimension in the direction of the geometrical axis, and by simultaneously displacing said agitating means in such a way that the area of agitation substantially spans the entire area located between the two walls.

Abstract: Apparatus and method for continuously separating a dense valuable material such as gold from a feed including a grinding mill (2) which directs a crushed feed through hydrocyclones (9) for separation into a light and dense fraction. The dense fraction is concentrated further by in Line Pressure Jigs (16,17) in line and the concentrate (23) is leached in a rotating leaching reactor (45). The resulting pregnant liquor is subjected to electrowinning (83) to recover gold and the spent liquor is recycled.

Abstract: A system and method are disclosed after chemical processing involving agitation and/or mixing of components. In one embodiment, the chemical processing involves pressure oxidation and in another embodiment involves pressure leaching. Agitation during chemical processing is aided by an agitator pump disposed in each compartment or stage of a reactor to draw components into a cavity of the agitator pump. In another embodiment, feed to a multi-stage reactor is split between different compartments of reactor.

Abstract: The present invention relates to the use of fine metal particles for the recovery of silver from a silver-bearing photographic waste solution. In particular, the metal particles are encapsulated in a hydrophilic colloid that allows for the permeability of water and silver ions. When contacted with the silver-bearing photographic waste solution, the hydrophilic colloid will imbibe water and swell. At the same time, the silver ions can permeate the colloid matrix and come into contact with the metal particles, preferably iron particles, at which point a metal—metal exchange reaction takes place.

Abstract: A removal system for removing a waste metal from a waste solution. The removal system comprises outer and inner containers and inlet, intermediate, and outlet conduits. The outer container defines an outer chamber, and the inner container defines an inner chamber. The inner container is located within the outer chamber. The inlet conduit allows fluid to flow from an exterior of the outer container to the inner chamber. The intermediate conduit allows fluid flow from the inner chamber to the outer chamber. The outlet conduit allows fluid flow from the outer chamber to the exterior of the outer chamber. A first reaction media located in the inner chamber, and a second reaction media located in the outer chamber. In use, the waste solution is forced along a removal path through the inlet conduit, the first reaction media, the intermediate conduit, the second reaction media, and the outlet conduit.

Abstract: Process and equipment for the removal of crud from the interface between aqueous and organic layers in SX settlers in which at least one rotatable auger is positioned at or near the interface to remove crud continuously or intermittently from the interface.

Abstract: A system and method are disclosed after chemical processing involving agitation and/or mixing of components. In one embodiment, the chemical processing involves pressure oxidation and in another embodiment involves pressure leaching. Agitation during chemical processing is aided by an agitator pump disposed in each compartment or stage of a reactor to draw components into a cavity of the agitator pump. In another embodiment, feed to a multi-stage reactor is split between different compartments of reactor.

Abstract: A system and method for recovering gold using pressure oxidation is disclosed. In one embodiment, a feed slurry is introduced into multiple compartments or stages of a multi-stage autoclave. In another embodiment, an agitator pump is disposed in each compartment or stage of an autoclave to draw the feed slurry and oxygen into a pump cavity for intimate mixing. Preferably these embodiments are used in combination, and each is believed to contribute to enhanced utilization of the oxygen within the autoclave.

Abstract: A system for reclaiming cadmium and tellurium from cadmium telluride solar cell. The system comprises a crushing apparatus for crushing cells into pieces, a first conveyor for transporting solar cells to the crushing apparatus, a barrel for receiving etchant for etching the crushed cell pieces, a second conveyor for transporting crusehed pieces of cells from the crushing apparatus to the barrel, and a screen separator for separating the crushed cell pieces into at least three components.

Abstract: A process to liberate volatile precious metals, and other minerals using air injection (FIG. 1). Volatile precious metals contained in aqueous or chemical solution(s), or slurries, including feed material(s) can be successfully extracted at a low cost using air/gas injection. It can be run continuously through the extraction apparatus at a large volume (FIG. 1). Air/gas is injected into the aqueous or chemical solution or slurry (229) and agitated by the impeller (232) or by natural or mechanical means to break down the air to small bubbles and disburse them throughout the aqueous or chemical solution, or slurries (229). The bubbles ascend and rise to the top of the tank or container (238) where the pregnant gasses are drawn off into the gas scrubbing tower (256). Or as in the feed material process, referring now to (FIG. 2), air is circulating up or through the feed material of a predetermined size and moisture content, in a enclosed tank or container (307).

Abstract: A simple and reliable silver recovery system including a series of silver recovery processing containers through which solution flows by gravity to a waste container. The reservoir container holding a silver-rich solution is positioned above the processing containers. The outlet of the reservoir container is positioned above the outlet of the first processing container so that when the first processing container is full, fluid flows from the first processing container to a second processing container. The fluid flow is metered by a pinch clamp provided in the conduit between the reservoir container and the first processing container. Steel wool may be used as the silver recovery medium. An inlet manifold insures unobstructed inlet flow and distributes that flow within the processing container. A polymer filter may be positioned above the steel wool to capture large particulate matter and prevent clogging of the system.

Abstract: A silver waste recovery system including a container having an inlet and an outlet at a lower elevation than the inlet, filler material in a silver cell is in communication with the inlet and a separate non-silver reactive filter is in communication with the outlet. A catch basin is positioned about the silver cell and the non-silver reactive filter contains particulates in the area of the filter and the filler material. Fluid entering the inlet passes through the silver cell and exits into the catch basin. It thereafter enters the non-silver reactive filter and exits from it through the outlet.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for solar heating a leach solution prior to its distribution over an ore heap. The apparatus includes a distribution mat having a series of individual emitter tubes joined by heat absorbing panels. The heat absorbing panels collect and transfer the absorbed solar energy to the leach solution passing through the emitter tubes. The temperature of the leach solution passing through the emitter tubes is elevated above ambient prior to the leach solution percolating down through the ore heap. The distribution mat formed by the plurality of emitter tubes and heat absorbing panels is formed from a flexible material, thereby allowing the distribution mat to be rolled and unrolled during application to the ore heap.

Abstract: A process and system and for extracting and refining gold from ores using relatively benign and inexpensive chemicals, fewer process steps, and permitting the recycling and re-use of process chemicals. The invention is preferably implemented as a two part process. In a first part process, gold is extracted from the ore and dissolved in a chemical solution to form a gold complex. The chemical solution preferably includes a KI and I.sub.2. Optionally, Isopropyl alcohol is mixed with the KI and I.sub.2 to serve as an accelerant. In a second part process, the complex is reduced to gold from the solution, preferably by one of two methods. The first method precipitates the gold complex by washing and decomposing of the gold complex to form pure gold. The second method electrolytically plates the gold from the gold complex solution onto a cathode to obtain pure gold.

Abstract: An apparatus for applying a leaching solution to a mass of ore includes a plurality of first tubes which are connected to a supply of leaching solution. Each of the first tubes is fitted with emitters which are positioned at spaced intervals along the length of each first tube. The first tubes are connected with a manifold on their distal ends. A second tube is connected to the manifold. The second tube is fitted with a sprinkler which is positioned to distribute leaching solution over the surface area of the ore mass which is positioned intermediate adjacent emitters.

Abstract: A silver reclamation system for use with photographic solution. The silver reclamation system includes a body containing a plurality of metallic members positioned within a flow chamber and a metallic mesh contained within the body. The photographic solution contacts the plurality of metallic members and the metallic mesh material thereby causing silver contained within the photographic solution to plate these members. Also, the metallic members cause silver in the photographic solution to crystallize. The crystallized silver can then be contained within a filter for processing.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for anaerobic oxidation of metal sulfides in ores and concentrates. Base-metal and precious-metal ores and concentrates often contain metal sulfides, such iron sulfides (e.g., pyrite, pyrhotite, arsenopyrite, etc.), copper sulfides (e.g., chalcopyrite, chalcocite, etc.), zinc sulfides (e.g., sphalerite, etc.) and/or lead sulfides (e.g., galena, etc.) and/or other metal sulfides), that must be oxidized in order to recover metal values (e.g., gold, silver, or platinum group elements) from the ores. In the present invention, these metal sulfides are oxidized in one reactor under anaerobic or anoxic conditions using oxidized metal ions, such as ferrous ions (Fe.sup.+3), as the oxidizing agent. Anaerobic oxidation of elemental sulfur that is produced by metal sulfide oxidation is biocatalyzed by sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Thiobacillus thiooxidans, or or Sulfolobus sp.

Abstract: Value metal, for example, silver in a spent silver bearing photographic solution is efficiently recovered in an exchange mass comprising a particulate inert substrate, for example, cellulosic fibers, synthetic fibers or sponge particles, co-mingled and interlocking with elongate particles of replacement metal, for example, strands of steel wool; the substrate defines a non-channeling random flow paths for liquid flow, and inhibits carriage of recovered value metal by the flowing liquid.

Abstract: A mining system and related methods are disclosed by which gold and/or other heavy metals are recovered at multiple sites along a continuously hydrated ore processing route. The gold-bearing ore and primary or carrier water are dynamically and circuitously displaced to segregate the gold, and precipitate the gold particles into predetermined recovery sites along the flow path of the mix. Boil box recovery sites are selectively provided for recovery of nuggets and smaller particles. Secondary water churns and disrupts the primary carrier flow of the mix through each boil box. Availability and reuse of massive amounts of carrier and secondary water are important.