Abstract: A projection display device and a method for controlling off-beams thereof are provided. The projection display device includes a case, a light source which is disposed in the case and outputs color light, a digital micro mirror device (DMD) which is disposed in the case, and controls micro mirrors and reflects the color light received from the light source, thereby outputting on-beams and off-beams, and an output unit which is disposed in the case and allows the off-beams output from the DMD to be projected to the outside of the case. Accordingly, the off-beams output from the DMD are output to the outer case through a shutter, prism, color filter, or an integral lens, so that a color of the outer case can be adjusted and also an exterior of the projection display device can be brightened.

Abstract: A digital cinema projection apparatus having an illumination source with a first etendue value for providing polarized polychromatic light. A first lens element lies in the path of the polarized polychromatic light for forming a substantially telecentric polarized polychromatic light beam. A color separator separates the telecentric polarized polychromatic light beam into at least two telecentric color light beams. At least two transmissive spatial light modulators modulate the two telecentric color light beams. There is an etendue value associated with each spatial light modulator. The etendue value is within 15% or greater than the first etendue value corresponding to the illumination source. A color combiner combines the modulated color beams along a common optical axis, forming a multicolor modulated beam thereby; and a projection lens directs the multicolor modulated beam toward a display surface.

Abstract: A projection-type image display apparatus using a light emitting diode light source including a compact optical arrangement. The projection-type image display apparatus includes an illumination optical system including a light emitting diode light source to produce light and emit the light produced in one direction, a uniform light illumination unit disposed along a first optical path to change a propagation direction of the light emitted from the illumination optical system and to emit uniform light, a display device to form an image from the light emitted from the uniform light illumination unit, and a projection optical system disposed along a second optical path to enlarge and project the image formed by the display device onto a screen, wherein the first optical path along which the uniform light illumination unit is disposed and the second optical path along which the projection optical system is disposed are parallel or substantially parallel to each other.

Abstract: An illuminating apparatus includes: a light source that emits a source light; and a light guiding module that has an overlap rod portion which can pass luminous fluxes traveling in different directions therethrough and has a returning member which returns the luminous fluxes having passed through the overlap rod portion at least once so that the luminous fluxes enter the overlap rod portion in directions different from the previous time, whereby the source light is made uniform.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is an image projecting apparatus, including: a one-dimension type light modulating device for modulating a light in accordance with image information; a projection optical system; and a light deflecting device for deflecting an image light in a direction approximately perpendicular to an extension direction of a one-dimensional image light emitted from the one-dimensional light modulating device; wherein the light deflecting device is composed of a first light deflecting device arranged between the projection optical system and the one-dimension type light modulating device, and a second light deflecting device arranged on an emission side of the projection optical system; the second light deflecting device is detachably mounted.

Abstract: An illumination apparatus illuminating an objective illumination region comprises a plurality of illuminants having light-emitting surfaces radiating diffused light, an illuminant substrate in which the illuminants are disposed so as to be set in array on the circumference, at least one optical member configured to guide the diffused light to the objective illumination region, a movable section configured to drive the optical member so as to be rotatable around the center of the circumference serving as a rotation center, and a lighting control section configured to control a light-emitting timing of the plurality of illuminants. The movable section and the lighting control section operate together such that the quantity of light per unit time of the diffused light guided to the objective illumination region is within a predetermined range.

Abstract: An apparatus, system, and method for a fold-mirror assembly with a dynamically adjustable mirror element for use in a projection device are disclosed herein.

Abstract: A laser projection apparatus PJ includes: laser devices; incident optical systems, each of which is supplied with light beam from the laser device; a scanning device for two-dimensionally scanning the light beam; and a projection optical system for projecting the light beam from the scanning device onto a screen; wherein the scanning device includes a resonant drive mirror for performing deflection in a main scanning direction, and at least one light source image is formed in an optical path ranging from the scanning device to the screen SC, and the projection optical system includes two reflecting mirrors which has such a power that, with respect to the main scanning direction, a positive power thereof becomes increasingly greater toward peripheries of the main scanning direction, and each of the incident optical systems has a power in the main scanning direction and a power in the sub scanning direction, one power being different from another power, thereby achieving a laser projection apparatus using a pro

Abstract: A three-panel projection display apparatus displays a color image by separating light emitted from a light source into lights of three primaries, i.e., red, green, and blue, with dichroic mirrors, by irradiating liquid crystal light valves with the respective separated lights, by combining the lights modulated by the respective liquid crystal light valves with a cross dichroic prism, and by projecting the combined light through a single projection lens onto a screen. The lengths of the light paths for the separated blue and green lights are equal to each other. The distance between a condenser lens and the liquid crystal light valve in the blue light path is shorter than the distance between a condenser lens and the liquid crystal light valve in the green light path.

Abstract: A laser projection apparatus includes: laser devices; incident optical systems, each of which is supplied with light beam from the laser device; a scanning device for two-dimensionally scanning the light beam; and a projection optical system for projecting the light beam from the scanning device onto a screen; wherein the scanning device includes a resonant drive mirror for performing deflection in a main scanning direction, and the projection optical system includes at least two nonaxisymmetric-shaped reflecting mirrors and a light source image is present between the first mirror, which is most closest to the scanning device, and the second mirror, thereby achieving a laser projection apparatus using a projection optical system which is easy to downsize, has velocity uniformity and has successful projection characteristics and brightness.

Abstract: A projection-type display device 1 including a light source 10, an optical integrator 20, dichroic mirrors 30 and 35, a reflecting mirror 36, a relay optical system 40, parallelizing lenses 50B, 50G and 50R, liquid crystal light valves 60B, 60G and 60R, incident side lenses 70B, 70G and 70R, a light-synthesizing cross dichroic prism 80, a relay lens 90, an emergent side lens 95, a liquid crystal light valve 100 and a projection lens 110, and liquid crystal light valve 100 is provided in the rear stage of liquid crystal light valves 60B, 60G and 60R.

Abstract: A projection optical system for use in an image projection apparatus illuminating a light valve forming an image in accordance with a modulating signal with illumination light from a light source. The projection optical system includes first and second optical systems arranged along an optical path defining an upstream-downstream direction in the order described from upstream to downstream on the downstream side of the light valve. The first optical system includes at least one dioptric system and has positive power. The second optical system includes at least one reflecting surface having power and has positive power. The image formed by the light valve is formed as an intermediate image in the optical path, and the intermediate image is magnified and projected.

Abstract: An illumination device includes a first light source unit having a plurality of first light sources, and a first reflection unit for guiding light beams emitted respectively from the first light sources in an identical direction. The illumination device further includes a second light source unit having at least one second light source. A center of an optical axis of the second light source is defined in an area where a light amount distribution of light beams to be emitted from the first light source unit and reflected on the first reflection unit is relatively small.

Abstract: An illumination optical apparatus and a projection type display apparatus capable of enhancing an illumination efficiency; having an ellipsoidal mirror, a light source arranged at a first focal point of the ellipsoidal mirror, a stop arranged closer to said light source side by a predetermined distance from a second focal point of said ellipsoidal mirror, and a positive refractive collimator lens for collimating a light flux emitted from the stop to a parallel light flux. A condition (0.01<L2/L1<0.06) is satisfied where, L1 is a distance from an apex of the ellipsoidal mirror to the second focal point thereof and, L2 (the light source side is a positive distance) is a distance from the second focal point of the ellipsoidal mirror to the stop.

Abstract: An illuminating optical system propagates a coherent light flux from at least one light source into a predetermined optical path to guide the light flux to a screen. A light bulb forms an image to be displayed on the screen on an illumination area illuminated with the light flux that is guided by the illuminating optical system. A projecting optical unit projects the image that is formed on the illumination area onto the screen in a magnifying manner. The illuminating optical system includes a diffusing unit that diffuses the light flux from the light source near a focusing position of the illuminating optical system.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is an illumination system for use in display systems employing spatial light modulators. The illumination system comprises a fastening mechanism for securing the bonding of the walls of the light integrator of the illumination system. A heat dissipation mechanism can be alternatively provided for reducing the temperature of the illumination system by dissipating the heat thereof.

Abstract: In an image projection apparatus, the deflection axis of the pixels of a display device is parallel to the longer sides of the display area of the display device, and the entrance pupil of a projection optical system is displaced from the line normal to the center of the display area in the direction parallel to the shorter sides of the display device. The distance from the display device to the optical component closest thereto is determined based on the intersection between the lowermost ray of projection light that leaves the lower end of the display area and reaches the entrance pupil of the projection optical system and the uppermost ray of illumination light that leaves the illumination optical system and reaches the upper end of the display device.

Abstract: A spatial light modulator is disclosed, along with methods for making such a modulator. The spatial light modulator comprises an array of micromirrors each having a hinge and a micromirror plate held via a hinge on a substrate, the micromirror plate being attached to the hinge such that the micromirror plate can rotate along a rotation axis and the hinge structure is located between the micromirror plate and the light source. The mirror plate is formed between the hinge and the substrate on which the hinge is formed. As a result, the hinge is exposed to the incident light during the operation.

Abstract: A projection type video display apparatus is provided with an LED array for emitting light in red, an LED array for emitting light in green, and an LED array for emitting light in blue. On a light-incident side of a rod integrator, time-dividing mirrors 2A, 2B arranged in a cross manner, for guiding the light from each LED array to an inside of the rod integrator, are arranged. Furthermore, on a light-emission side of the LED array for emitting the light in red, a time-diving mirror is arranged, and on a light-emission side of the LED array for emitting the light in blue, a time-dividing mirror is provided. Each time-dividing mirror switch either to reflect the light or to transmit the light, depending on whether or not voltage is applied thereto. At time-dividing lighting timing of the LED arrays, the time-dividing mirrors switch either to reflect the light or to transmit the light.

Abstract: A projection display system has at least one light-recycling illumination system and at least one imaging light modulator. The light-recycling illumination system includes a light source that is enclosed within a light-recycling cavity. The light source is a plurality of light-emitting diode that emits light, and a fraction of that light will exit the light-recycling cavity through an aperture. The light-recycling cavity recycles a portion of the light emitted by the light source back to the light source in order to enhance the luminance of the light exiting the aperture. The fraction of the light that exits the aperture is partially collimated and is directed to the imaging light modulator. The imaging light modulator spatially modulates the partially collimated light to form an image.

Abstract: A projection display system in which light use efficiency and image brightness are enhanced by collecting and using substantially all of the light that has been diffracted from a diffractive linear display device without loss of higher-order modes of diffracted light. The projection display system includes a light source, a linear light illumination system that transforms light emitted from the light source into a thin linear light, a diffractive linear display device that modulates the luminous intensity of the thin linear light by selectively diffracting the thin linear light, a mode selection optical system that selectively transmits or filters out the light diffracted by the diffractive linear display device according to the order of the diffracted light, a scanner that scans a linear image projected from the mode selection optical system, and a projection lens that enlarges and projects the image onto a screen.

Abstract: A light source device includes a discharge lamp and a reflection mirror having a plurality of concave curved surfaces. Each of the plurality of concave curved surfaces is an ellipsoidal surface. A first focal point of each of the ellipsoidal surfaces is disposed at the light emitting center of the discharge lamp. A second focal point of each of the ellipsoidal surfaces is disposed, when viewed from a predetermined first direction perpendicular to a system optical axis passing through the light emitting center, on the opposite side of the system optical axis to the ellipsoidal surface, and when viewed from a second direction perpendicular to the system optical axis and the first direction, on the side where the ellipsoidal surface is present with reference to the system optical axis.

Abstract: A method forms an image with a reconfigurable array of mirrors. The method includes configuring the array by translating some of the mirrors such that distances of the mirrors of the array from a reference plane have a non-uniform spatial distribution. The method includes illuminating the configured array with a coherent light beam such that part of the light beam is reflected off the array and is projected on a planar viewing screen.

Abstract: In a projection type display apparatus for enabling to display an image, by projecting an image on an image display element(s), enlargedly, upon a nearly horizontal surface, such as, a table, a reflection mirror for reflecting a light from a light source is so disposed that an optical axis of the light source is nearly perpendicular to an optical axis of a lens group having a plural number of lens elements, which are disposed symmetric with respect to the optical axis.

Abstract: The invention relates to a projection system comprising an image source and an objective lens for producing an imaging beam and producing a first image there behind, wherein the first image is off-axis with respect to the imaging beam optical axis. The inventive system comprises a concave mirror which is arranged after the first image on the imaging beam path and produces a second image on a projection plane from the first image.

Abstract: A spatial light modulator comprises an array of micromirror devices each of which has a reflective and deflectable mirror plates. The mirror plates are moved between an ON and OFF state during operation, wherein the OFF state is a state wherein the mirror plate is not parallel to the substrate on which the mirror plate is formed. The micromirror device may have an ON state stopper for limiting the rotation of the mirror plate at the ON state angle, but does not have an OFF state stopper. The non-zero OFF state is achieved by attaching the mirror plate to a deformable hinge held by a hinge support that is curved at the natural resting state.

Abstract: A light source unit comprising an arc tube 11 having a light emitting section 111 sealed sections 1121, 1122, an oval reflector 12, and a secondary reflecting mirror 13 for covering the front side of the arc tube 11 and reflecting a luminous flux radiated from the arc tube 11 toward the oval reflector 12, the center of discharging emission from the arc tube 11 is disposed at a first focal position L1 of the oval reflector 12, and the secondary reflecting mirror 13 is configured as a separate member from the arc tube 11, so that the outer peripheral portion of the secondary reflecting mirror 13 is accommodated within a circular cone shown by boundaries L3, L4 connecting a second focal position L2 of the oval reflector 12 and the distal end of the sealed section 1122 of the arc tube 11 when being mounted to the front sealed section 1122 of the arc tube 11.

Abstract: The micromirror-based projection system of the present invention uses polarized illumination light in producing desired images on a display target. The display target has coated thereon a polarization film that absorbs most of the ambient light that would be incident onto the display target otherwise. Polarized illumination light is provided incident to the reflective surfaces of the spatial light modulator. The polarization direction of the illumination light can be associated with the rotation axes of the micromirrors and the polarization direction of the polarized film on the display target.

Abstract: A multi-direction image viewing system includes a triangular or rectangular image case, and plural projectors symmetrically installed to the inner sides of the image case in three or four directions. Projecting light paths cross each other so that the size of the image case is reduced to 1/6.7 to ? of the size of the conventional image case. By reducing the weight of the image case through size reduction, the multi-direction image viewing system can serve as a mobile multi-direction image viewing system coupled with a trailer and transported by a small sized vehicle such as a motorcycle, as a wide viewing angle multi-direction image system attached to a wall and coupled with the safety fence of the bus terminal or the subway station, and as an image viewing system mounted to a ceiling or wall.

Abstract: A display optical system includes a light-source unit, a first optical unit which collects a light beam from the light-source unit, a scanning member which scans the light beam from the first optical unit, and a second optical unit which focuses the light beam scanned by the scanning member on about a scanning surface. An optical axis, defined by an optical path along which a light ray travels from the center of the scanning member to the center of the scanning surface via the second optical unit, intersects itself. In addition, the second optical unit includes two reflective mirrors having positive optical powers.

Abstract: Described is a kaleidoscope for attaching with a video monitor. The kaleidoscope includes a housing and a monitor holder. The housing includes an interior, a first end, and a second end. The first end has an image receiving hole for receiving light from a video monitor. The interior includes multiple light surfaces for receiving the light from the video monitor and projecting the light toward the second end. The second end includes a viewing hole to allow a user to view the projected light. Through the monitor holder, the housing can be attached with a hand held video monitor. When the video monitor is in operation, images from the video monitor are received through the first end and projected within the interior of the housing between the light surfaces to provide a kaleidoscopic effect of the images, which can be viewed through the viewing hole in the second end.

Abstract: An image projection apparatus. The image projection apparatus comprises a light source and LCD panel. The LCD panel comprises a plurality of pixels and color filters thereon. Light from the light source is projected to the pixels along an irradiative path and the LCD panel selectively reflects the projected light in accordance with an image signal along a projective path, wherein an angle between the irradiative and projective paths exceeds 0°.

Abstract: Projection assemblies are provided herein for use in a display system. According to one exemplary embodiment, the projection assembly includes an illumination source and a plurality of co-planar modulator panels. A method of modulating light is also provided herein that includes generating multi-component light, splitting the multi-component light into a plurality of component beams, and modulating the component beams with a plurality of co-planar modulator panels to form a plurality of sub-images.

Abstract: A laser projection apparatus PJ includes: laser devices; incident optical systems, each of which is supplied with light beam from the laser device; a scanning device for two-dimensionally scanning the light beam; and a projection optical system for projecting the light beam from the scanning device onto a screen; wherein the scanning device includes a resonant drive mirror for performing deflection in a main scanning direction, and at least one light source image is formed in an optical path ranging from the scanning device to the screen SC, and the projection optical system includes two reflecting mirrors which has such a power that, with respect to the main scanning direction, a positive power thereof becomes increasingly greater toward peripheries of the main scanning direction, and each of the incident optical systems has a power in the main scanning direction and a power in the sub scanning direction, one power being different from another power, thereby achieving a laser projection apparatus using a pro

Abstract: System and method for thin projection display systems. An embodiment comprises a light source, an array of light modulators optically coupled to the light source, a lensed mirror optically coupled to the array, and a controller electronically coupled to the array and to the light source. The array produces images on a display plane by modulating light from the light source based on image data and the controller provides light commands to the light source and load image data into the array. The lensed mirror reflects modulated light from the array onto the display plane, the lensed mirror comprising a refractive portion and a reflective portion. The refractive portion of the lensed mirror helps to increase the light bending capability to help reduce the overall thickness of a projection display system.

Abstract: A laser projection apparatus includes: laser devices; incident optical systems, each of which is supplied with light beam from the laser device; a scanning device for two-dimensionally scanning the light beam; and a projection optical system for projecting the light beam from the scanning device onto a screen; wherein the scanning device includes a resonant drive mirror for performing deflection in a main scanning direction, and the projection optical system includes at least two nonaxisymmetric-shaped reflecting mirrors and a light source image is present between the first mirror, which is most closest to the scanning device, and the second mirror, thereby achieving a laser projection apparatus using a projection optical system which is easy to downsize, has velocity uniformity and has successful projection characteristics and brightness.

Abstract: An exemplary light tunnel includes at least three reflectors arranged one adjoining the other in sequence, thereby forming a corresponding at least three-sided enclosed conduit structure. At each of a plurality of junctions where a first adjoining reflector and a second adjoining reflector adjoin each other, an end portion of the first adjoining reflector abuts an end face of the second adjoining reflector and extends beyond an outer surface of the second adjoining reflector. The two adjoining reflectors are joined to each other by adhesive. The adhesive extends between a extending part of the end portion of the first adjoining reflectors that extends beyond the outer surface of the second adjoining reflector and a part of the outer surface of the second adjoining reflector.

Abstract: A single-panel projection system (1) includes a lighting device for generating collimated light, a beam splitter (30) for splitting the collimated light into a plurality of collimated beams, a color separator (40) for separating each collimated beam into a red, a green and a blue color beams, a color scrolling wheel (50) having a plurality of reflecting areas with different thicknesses and being rotated at a predetermined speed for scrolling the color beams, an imaging device (60) for imaging a picture by modulating the scrolled color beams according to image signals provided by an image, and a projecting lens (70) for magnifying the picture and projecting the magnified picture onto a screen.

Abstract: An apparatus and method is discloses for providing a substantially uniform, homogenous, polarized light. A beam of substantially un-polarized light is provided by a conventional light source. The un-polarized light is converted to at least four real images by using a light pipe and appropriate lensing. Each of the real images have a light region and one more dark regions at a first image plane. A portion of light from a light region in each real image is directed to one or more dark regions in each of the real images in a polarization dependent manner and the altered image is into a single image of substantially polarized light.

Abstract: There is provided a light source device which emits a bundle of rays with less diffused light and which is suitable for a projector, the light source device including a reflector whose inner surface is made to constitute a reflection surface, a lamp made up of a spherical light emitting portion and a sealing portion which is formed in such a manner as to pass through a center of the light emitting portion to project from the light emitting portion, and a conical mirror whose outer surface is made to constitute a reflection surface, which is formed into a cone shape and which covers a front sealing portion of the sealing portion of the lamp, wherein the light emitting portion of the lamp is disposed in a position where a focal point of the reflector resides.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a method of operating display systems with reduction of the warm-up time of an arc lamp in the event of an accidental or unintentional turn-off.

Abstract: A projector includes a projection engine section including a light source section, an image forming section for displaying an image of a desired size on an irradiated surface using light from the light source section, and projecting light corresponding to an image signal to the irradiated surface, and a housing for housing the projection engine section, wherein the projection engine section is capable of moving in the housing in a direction along a light path.

Abstract: Exemplary embodiments provide a projection-type display apparatus, which can address or realize a reduction in weight and size, a reduction in power consumption, and a reduction in noise, and address or realize a reduction in price, and a control method for the projection-type display apparatus, as well as a control program for the projection-type display apparatus. The projection-type display apparatus includes a solid-state light source that emits light, a mirror device that controls an emitting direction of the incident light to thereby subject the incident light to temporal modulation, and a projecting device that projects the modulated light.

Abstract: An image display apparatus is provided, which includes a first image display element corresponding to a first color light, a second display element corresponding to a second color light different from the first color light, and a projection optical system having at least one reflective surface and projecting image lights from the first and second display elements onto a projection plane.

Abstract: A reflective mirror manufacturing method for manufacturing a reflective mirror used in an illumination device including an arc tube including a light-emitting portion and a reflective mirror including a reflective surface that reflects light from the light-emitting portion in a predetermined direction, includes: a first step of forming a tube by heating a tube including a material of the reflective mirror, thereafter putting the tube in a form block, applying internal pressure with an inert gas to cause a center portion of the tube to expand, so that part of an inner surface of the expanded center portion includes a shape corresponding to the reflective surface of the reflective mirror; a second step of cutting the tube at the center portion to form a reflective mirror member; and a third step of forming a reflective layer on an inner surface of the reflective mirror member.

Abstract: A digital display system consists of an image modulator and multiple light modulators. An image processing system processes an incoming data stream, scans processed data to an image modulator and controls for the light modulators. Other user inputs and sensors are used to affect the processing and controls. The timing for scanning the processed data into the image modulators is controlled along with the intensity and wavelength of the light modulators. The display system may implement a spatial and temporal image processing, digital shutter controls, rolling shutter controls, sequential color output, adaptive dynamic sensor feedback, frame rate matching, motion compensated field sequencing and a variety of other techniques to produce a high quality display output. The resulting display has improved image consistency, enhanced color gamut, higher dynamic range and is better able to portray high motion content.

Abstract: A method for transmitting light in an image display system includes generating a first cone of light from a first light source. The first cone of light includes a plurality of light beams. A first portion of the first cone is projected in an illumination path. A second portion of the first cone is projected at a surface of a reflector. The second portion of the first cone is reflected to project the second portion of the first cone in the illumination path. The first and second portions of the first cone are received at an entrance of an integrator rod. The second portion of the first cone increases the intensity of light received by the integrator rod.

Abstract: A light source lamp, in which reduction of the available amount of illumination light on an illuminated region side can be reduced or suppressed, heightens light utilizing efficiency. The light source lamp has a light emitting tube having a luminous part in which a pair of electrodes arranged along an illumination light axis are built, an ellipsoidal reflector which reflects light from the luminous part and emits its reflection light as illumination light to an illuminated region side, and an auxiliary mirror which is arranged on the illuminated region side of the luminous part, has a reflection concave surface of a nearly hemispherical shape, and reflects the light from the luminous part on the ellipsoidal reflector. A center Q of curvature of the auxiliary mirror is arranged in a position distant from a center P of the luminous part to the illuminated region side along the illumination light axis.

Abstract: A retro-reflect type light pipe, an illumination device including the same, and a projection display including the illumination device are provided. The retro-reflective type light pipe includes an incident portion through which light is incident, a guide portion which guides the incident light such that the incident light propagates internally therewithin while being reflected at inner walls thereof, and which thereby mixes the incident light thus providing uniform light. A retro-reflective portion, provided at one end of the guide portion, re-reflects the incident light toward the incident portion. The illumination device includes a light source, the retro-reflective type light pipe, and an optical path-changing member provided between the light source and the retro-reflective type light pipe, which changes the direction of the light emitted from the light source such that the light from the light source propagates toward the retro-reflective type light pipe.

Abstract: A light source device includes first and second electrodes, an arc tube having a main body section having a discharge space in which the first and second electrodes are disposed with a distance and a sealing section disposed on each of the both ends of the main body section, a primary reflecting mirror disposed on the side of the first electrode, a secondary reflecting mirror disposed on the side of the second electrode, and a current drive device that generates an alternating current for causing the discharge between the first and second electrodes, and power control by controlling the alternating current so that supplying energy in an anodic term of the first electrode becomes smaller than supplying energy in a cathode term.