Abstract: A pulsed compression reactor may include a reactor housing, a spring piston, and a driver piston. The reactor housing may define an interior volume, and may include a first passage and a second passage which lead to the interior volume. The spring piston may be positioned within the interior volume, wherein the spring piston and the reactor housing at least partially define a perimeter of a gas spring buffer chamber within the interior volume. The driver piston may be positioned within the interior volume, wherein the spring piston, the driver piston, and the reactor housing at least partially define a perimeter of a reaction chamber within the interior volume.

Abstract: According to an example aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus comprising a volume for receiving a gas sample; and an ultrasonic transducer; wherein the ultrasonic transducer is caused to generate a standing wave to the volume, said standing wave comprising at least one particle trapping zone for trapping particles carried by the gas sample, and to release particles trapped to the at least particle trapping zone by decreasing power of the standing wave to at least one lower power level and/or switching off the standing wave.

Abstract: The present disclosure provides an apparatus and methods of use for isolating particles. An example apparatus includes (a) a vessel defining a pressurizable chamber, wherein the vessel includes a distal end and a proximal end, (b) an inlet of the pressurizable chamber at the proximal end of the vessel, (c) a nozzle positioned within the pressurizable chamber, wherein the nozzle includes an inlet tube in fluid communication with the inlet of the pressurizable chamber, wherein the nozzle includes an outlet aperture, wherein the nozzle is adjustable to alter a distance between the proximal end of the vessel and the outlet aperture of the nozzle, and wherein the nozzle is adjustable to alter an angle between a longitudinal axis of the vessel and a longitudinal axis of the nozzle, and (d) an outlet of the pressurizable chamber at the distal end of the vessel.

Abstract: A solution for treating a fluid, such as water, is provided. An ultraviolet transparency of a fluid can be determined before or as the fluid enters a disinfection chamber. In the disinfection chamber, the fluid can be irradiated by ultraviolet radiation to harm microorganisms that may be present in the fluid. One or more attributes of the disinfection chamber, fluid flow, and/or ultraviolet radiation can be adjusted based on the transparency to provide more efficient irradiation and/or higher disinfection rates. In addition, various attributes of the disinfection chamber, such as the position of the inlet(s) and outlet(s), the shape of the disinfection chamber, and other attributes of the disinfection chamber can be utilized to create a turbulent flow of the fluid within the disinfection chamber to promote mixing and improve uniform ultraviolet exposure.

Abstract: The subject disclosure presents systems and computer-implemented methods for calculating the diffusivity constant of a sample using acoustic time-of-flight (TOF) based information correlated with a diffusion model to reconstruct a sample's diffusivity coefficient. Operations disclosed herein such as acoustically determining the phase differential accumulated through passive fluid exchange (i.e. diffusion) based on the geometry of the tissue sample, modeling the impact of the diffusion on the TOF, and using a post-processing algorithm to correlate the results to determine the diffusivity constant, are enabled by monitoring the changes in the speed of sound caused by penetration of fixative such as formalin into several tissue samples. A tissue preparation system may be adapted to monitor said diffusion of a tissue sample and determine an optimal processing workflow.

Abstract: A method of separating heavy water from normal through application of acoustic pressure shock waves to a fluid including heavy water and normal water and recovering separated normal water.

Abstract: A closed loop combustion system for the combustion of fuels using a molten metal oxide bed.

Abstract: The present invention allows low-concentration hydrogen sulfide gas to be recovered and supplied to a processing plant that uses hydrogen sulfide gas. The hydrogen sulfide gas production plant is provided with a first supply pipe that supplies hydrogen sulfide gas obtained from a sulfur recovery facility to a processing plant, and a second supply pipe that is branched at a predetermined point in the first supply pipe and supplies the hydrogen sulfide gas from the sulfur recovery facility to the processing plant. The first supply pipe has a concentration meter that is provided on the upstream side than the branch point and measures the concentration of the hydrogen sulfide gas. The first supply pipe and the second supply pipe have ON/OFF valves that are provided on the downstream side of the branch point and perform ON/OFF control of the supply to the processing plant through the supply pipe.

Abstract: A device which can increase the rates of interfacial reactions including heterogeneous electron transfer reactions, the device comprising at least one sono(electro)chemical cell adapted to hold a thin layer of condensed fluid which is optionally adapted to participate in a heterogeneous electron transfer reaction, wherein the cell is further adapted to provide an ultrasonic transducer face to propagate sound waves into the thin layer of condensed fluid, and wherein the cell is still further adapted with an opening to provide the thin layer of condensed fluid with at least one interface which provides for reflection of the sound waves from the interface back into the thin layer of condensed fluid. The cells are configured to provide for a thin layer operation as opposed to a bulk operation. In method embodiments, ultrasound is applied to the thin layer of condensed fluid. The application of ultrasound is carried out both without cooling of the cell and without pressurization of the cell.

Abstract: Substituted poly(phosphazene) compounds comprising a combination of units having one or more of the structures (i) to (iii) wherein: the combination comprises R1 and R2; each R1, is independently an optionally substituted alkyl- or alkyl ether-based side chain containing an isocyanate-reactive moiety, an epoxide-reactive moiety, an amine-reactive moiety, a supramolecular noncovalent bonding moiety, or combinations thereof; and each R2 is independently an optionally substituted alkyl- or alkyl ether-based side chain containing nitro, nitramine, nitrate ester, azide, an ammonium compound moiety with energetic counter-ion, or combinations thereof. Methods of making the compounds are also described.

Abstract: Disclosed is an improved water treatment cavitation reactor cone. The tank operates on a continuous flow of fluids which are subjected to ultrasonic waves in combination with a high level of injected ozone. The treatment tank includes a tangential inlet that induces a rotating flow into the tank thereby increasing the mixing of the ozone within the effluent. The effluent is further treated with DC current. The treatment tank provides a cost efficient and environmentally friendly process and apparatus for cleaning and recycling fluids as contaminated as frac water, used to stimulate gas production from shale formations, as well as other types of fluids having various levels of contaminants such as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and suspended solids. The calcium carbonate scaling tendency is reduced to an acceptable level without the use of acids, ion exchange materials, or anti scaling chemicals which is of economical and environmental significance and benefit.

Abstract: Disclosed is a water treatment apparatus for treating Lake Okeechobee water. The treatment apparatus operates on a continuous flow of water which is subjected to hydrodynamic waves, acoustic ultrasonic waves in combination with injected ozone and electrolysis. The treatment system provides a cost efficient and environmentally friendly process for cleaning contaminated water that is directed into estuaries, lagoons, intracoastal waterway, everglades, and the ocean. Treatment includes addressing various levels of contaminants such as aerobic bacteria, often called a green slime that produces a bio-film. The apparatus can be mounted on a vessel to permit targeting of algae blooms.

Abstract: Disclosed is an improved water treatment process that operates on a continuous flow of fluids that are subjected to hydrodynamic waves, acoustic ultrasonic waves in combination with injected ozone and electro chemical treatment. The treatment system provides a cost efficient and environmentally friendly process and apparatus for cleaning and recycling fluids as contaminated as frac water, used to stimulate gas production from shale formations, as well as other types of fluids having various levels of contaminants such as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and suspended solids. The calcium carbonate scaling tendency is reduced to an acceptable level without the use of acids, ion exchange materials, or anti scaling chemicals which is of economical and environmental significance and benefit.

Abstract: Disclosed herein are systems and methods for desalination of salt water based on an engineered acoustic field that causes constructive and destructive interference at pre-computed spatial positions. The engineered acoustic field can cause high-pressure and low-pressure regions where desalination membranes are located. The induced pressure from the acoustic field can force pure water through the membranes leaving ionic and dissolved molecular species behind.

Abstract: Systems and methods for reducing an amount of unwanted living organisms within an algae cultivation fluid are provided herein. According to some embodiments, methods may include subjecting the algae cultivation fluid to an amount of cavitation, the amount of cavitation being defined by a pressure differential between a downstream pressure and a vapor pressure, the pressure differential divided by half of a product of a fluid density multiplied by a square of a velocity of an apparatus throat.

Abstract: Disclosed is an improved water treatment apparatus. The treatment apparatus is pressurized and operates on a continuous flow of fluids which are subjected to hydrodynamic waves, acoustic ultrasonic waves in combination with injected ozone. The treatment tank includes a tangential inlet that induces a rotating flow into the tank thereby increasing the mixing of the ozone within the effluent. The ozonated fluid is further electro chemically treated with DC current. The treatment tank provides a cost efficient and environmentally friendly process and apparatus for cleaning and recycling fluids as contaminated as frac water, used to stimulate gas production from shale formations, as well as other types of fluids having various levels of contaminants such as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and suspended solids.

Abstract: An apparatus for breaking molecular bonds of a liquid may include a first arrangement configured to create macroscopic flow of a liquid such that a molecule of the liquid has a velocity corresponding to a bond disassociation energy of the molecule. The apparatus may also include a second arrangement configured to collide the macroscopic flow of liquid with an obstacle. The collision results in molecular collisions having an energy that exceeds the bond disassociation energy of the molecule.

Abstract: Disclosed here are methods of determining the mass design of the resonating bar and the reaction chamber in a sonar reactor of use in upgrading Heavy Oil Feedstocks (HOFs).

Abstract: Apparatus features a container and a transducer. The container is made of a selected material and has a container wall with a selected thickness, and configured to hold a fluid therein. The transducer is configured on the outside of the container wall, and is also configured to provide a standing wave into the fluid. The selected thickness and material of the container wall is chosen to ensure about a ½ wavelength of a desired frequency exists within the container wall, so as to substantially reduce back reflections toward the transducer due to any mismatch in acoustic impedance at the interface between the container wall and the fluid, and so as to substantially maximize the amount of energy delivered to the fluid, thus improving the operating efficiency of the apparatus.

Abstract: A system and process for solvent and asphaltene separation after sonic treatment of heavy oil feedstocks are disclosed. The separation process involves solvent selection and use of a proprietary sonic reactor which are paramount for the efficient operation of the whole process. The solvent and asphaltene separation system include portable and scalable equipment of design that may allow optimal recover of recyclable solvent, deasphalted oil that may be practically free of solvent and asphaltenes, and high extraction of asphaltenes in the heavy oil feedstocks processed. The system and process may enable economic operation to small to medium oil producers.

Abstract: The present disclosure refers to a method for clay removal using sonication treatment process for hydrocarbon recovery from a variety of mine pits or tailing ponds, to convert contaminated hydrocarbons substances into de-asphalted oil, heavy oil fuel or asphalt output. This method may generally require a solvent for removal of material in suspension, which may dissolve contaminated hydrocarbons by using a plurality of alkane containing non polar solvents, which may be filtered through simple separation. The sonication treatment process may reduce the production time of de-asphalted oil and heavy oil fuel, from a range from about six hours up to more than ten hours to about 5 seconds to 2 minutes depending on the solvent-feedstock mixture being processed.

Abstract: Disclosed here are methods of determining magnet position and distance from a resonating component in a sonic reactor of use in upgrading Heavy Oil Feedstock's (HOFs).

Abstract: A system and process for solvent recovery after sonic treatment of heavy oil feedstocks is disclosed. The system avoids supercritical variations. The separation process involves solvent selection and use of a proprietary sonic reactor. The solvent recovery process may include pressure variations to solvent materials in order to obtain separation from of solvents from separated asphaltenes or deasphalted oil at high temperatures. The applied pressure variations allow the separation to occur avoiding supecritical states in the solvent materials.

Abstract: The present disclosure refers to a method for hydrocarbon recovery from a variety of oil spills, using a proprietary sonic treatment process for removal of solids from hydrocarbon substances, to convert contaminated hydrocarbons into de-asphalted oil and heavy oil fuel output. This method may generally require a solvent for removal of material in suspension, which may dissolve contaminated hydrocarbons by using a plurality of alkane containing non polar solvents, which may be filtered through simple separation. The sonic treatment method may reduce the production time of de-asphalted oil and heavy oil fuel, from a range from about six hours up to more than ten hours to about two minutes up to 30 seconds depending on the solvent-feedstock mixture being processed.

Abstract: A rotary machine type shock wave reactor suitable for thermal cracking of hydrocarbon-containing materials includes a casing, a rotor whose periphery contains an axial-flow blade cascade, and a directing rim, provided with at least two stationary vane cascades, adjoining an axial-flow rotor cascade, wherein the casing substantially encloses the periphery of the rotor and the directing rim. The cascades are configured to direct feedstock containing process stream to repeatedly pass the cascades in a helical trajectory while propagating within the duct between the inlet and exit and to generate stationary shock-waves to heat the feedstock. The axial-flow rotor cascade is configured to provide kinetic energy and add velocity to feedstock containing process stream, and the stationary vanes located downstream the rotor cascade are configured to reduce the velocity of the stream and convert kinetic energy into heat.

Abstract: The present document describes a method and apparatus to rapidly reticulate closed-cell or partially closed-cell foams. The method involves the propagation of an energy impulse inside the foam; the energy impulse can be a shock wave. The energy impulse is generated in the same gaseous environment in which the foam is immersed, preferentially air in room condition. The energy impulse destroys the membranes closing the foam cells without disintegrating the frame's structure. In particular, the method rapidly improves the acoustic and filtering behavior of the foams.

Abstract: The present invention is directed to a novel method for cleaning a filter surface using a plasma discharge self-cleaning filtration system. The method involves utilizing plasma discharges to induce short electric pulses of nanoseconds duration at high voltages. These electrical pulses generate strong Shockwaves that disintegrate and dislodge particulate matter located on the surface of the filter.

Abstract: A method for analyzing a fluid containing one or more analytes of interest includes; measuring a plurality of properties of a sample fluid with unknown concentrations of the one or more analytes of interest; and using the measurements and a model of the relationship between the plurality of properties and concentrations of the one or more analytes to calculate the concentration of at least one of the analytes of interest. The model may be an artificial neural network. The method may be used to monitor the concentration of inhibitors of gas hydrate formation in a fluid. Apparatus for use in the method is also provided.

Abstract: Methods and devices for exchanging therapeutic agents, such as cells, from one liquid medium to another liquid medium are provided. Aspects of embodiments of the methods include transferring a therapeutic agent from a first medium, such as a freezing, storage or shipping buffer, into a second medium, such as a sterile physiologically compatible buffer. In certain aspects, the transfer of the therapeutic agent from a first medium to a second medium involves the use of acoustic-focusing, or acoustophoresis. Embodiments of the subject methods may facilitate the transfer of a therapeutic agent from a storage medium to an infusion medium, and in certain embodiments include administering the therapeutic agent contained in the infusion medium to the subject. Also provided by the present disclosure are devices for practicing the subject methods.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a process using ultrasonic cutting for the preparation of an oral delivery device comprising a core which includes a pharmaceutically active agent covered by an outer coating which includes one or more openings communicating from the exterior of the device toward the core.

Abstract: A sterile-substance-supplying apparatus comprising: an atomization unit including a reservoir unit to reserve hydrogen peroxide, and an ultrasound vibrator to impart ultrasound vibration to the reserved hydrogen peroxide to be atomized; an evaporation unit, provided above the reservoir unit, that heats the atomized hydrogen peroxide to be evaporated; a connecting member connecting the evaporation unit and the atomization unit to each other; a hydrogen-peroxide-supply port to allow the hydrogen peroxide to be supplied to the reservoir unit; a carrier-gas-supply port, provided at the connecting member, that allows carrier gas for allowing the atomized hydrogen peroxide to flow to the evaporation unit to be supplied; and a container portion to reserve a substance for transmitting the ultrasound vibration generated by the ultrasound vibrator, and a metal vibrating plate, provided at a bottom portion of the reservoir unit, that transmits to the hydrogen peroxide the ultrasound vibration transmitted through the sub

Abstract: An apparatus for treating a liquid includes a first flow generator having an outlet for generating a first flow stream and a reaction chamber positioned in proximity to the outlet of the first flow generator and having a cavity adapted to receive the first flow stream from the first flow generator and reverse its direction within the confined space of the cavity. The flow generator may be a cavitation generator for producing multiple cavitation bubbles in the first slow stream, or a nozzle for generating a flow stream devoid of cavitation bubbles. A method for treating a liquid includes directing the liquid into a first flow generator configured to generate a first flow stream of the liquid, and directing the first flow stream from the first flow generator into a cavity of a reaction chamber.

Abstract: Method and system for controlled nanodiamond synthesis based on treating of a specially prepared solid carbon source target including carbon containing material in liquid media by irradiation energy beam focused at a predetermined distance from the target surface and having parameters to produce a light-hydraulic effect impacting the target surface and leading to the forming of diamond nanocrystals.

Abstract: The invention is directed to the application of EMR to one or more elements for the purpose of generating a scent response in humans. Electronic scents may be transmitted on a stand-alone basis, unaccompanied by other sensory stimulus, or as part of a multisensory experience. Examples of multisensory experiences include theatrical motion pictures, television programming, sound recordings, or e-books accompanied by one or more scents. These scents may be coordinated with content elements, such as the scent of horses accompanying the motion picture “High Noon,” the scents of beer and leather accompanying a sound recording of “When You're a Jet” from “West Side Story,” or the musty scent of a cellar in an e-book version of Poe's “The Cask of Amontillado.

Abstract: Disclosed is an improved water treatment cavitation reactor cone. The tank operates on a continuous flow of fluids which are subjected to ultrasonic waves in combination with a high level of injected ozone. The treatment tank includes a tangential inlet that induces a rotating flow into the tank thereby increasing the mixing of the ozone within the effluent. The effluent is further treated with DC current. The treatment tank provides a cost efficient and environmentally friendly process and apparatus for cleaning and recycling fluids as contaminated as frac water, used to stimulate gas production from shale formations, as well as other types of fluids having various levels of contaminants such as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and suspended solids. The calcium carbonate scaling tendency is reduced to an acceptable level without the use of acids, ion exchange materials, or anti scaling chemicals which is of economical and environmental significance and benefit.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of cleaning a surface by applying highly propagating ultrasonic energy to said surface, the method comprises immersing at least a portion of the surface into a fluid, wherein said fluid is in contact with an highly propagating ultrasonic energy emitting assembly; and emitting highly propagating ultrasonic energy from the assembly into the fluid to generate cavitation at the surface thereby cleaning said surface.

Abstract: The Centrifugal Fluid Ring Plasma Reactor employs a centrifugal impeller and a fluid barrier to mix multi-phase fluids and repeatedly move the mixture through a reaction zone, where the mixture contacts catalysts and/or is subjected to electromagnetic, mechanical, nuclear, and/or sonic energy to create ions, free radicals or activated molecules, which initiate or promote a desired reaction. In one embodiment, high-voltage electromagnetic energy is applied to Cobalt and Tungsten/Thorium electrodes in the reaction zone to create plasma. The Centrifugal Fluid Ring Plasma Reactor is suitable for converting carbon dioxide and methane into useful fuel products and for performing other multi-phase chemical reactions.

Abstract: Oil sands ore containing bitumen is treated in a reactor chamber by ultrasonic oscillations impact such that cavitation of ore molecules occurs. The disintegration of the pulsating bubbles in the cavitation results in the separation of the oil, water, sand and air fractions of the oil sands. The oil fraction may be continuously extracted for subsequent refining processes.

Abstract: Shock waves are applied to clean and sterilize fluids in containers and conveyances. Shock waves destroy pathogens and pollutants in blood, water, food liquids and other fluids.

Abstract: A system is provided that includes one or more acoustic microfilters through which is flowed a mixture of a fluid and a particulate to selectively filter particles from the fluid. Also included are one or more phononic crystal units coupled to the acoustic microfilter(s) to further selectively filter particles from the fluid. Related apparatus, systems, techniques and articles are also described.

Abstract: A stirring device and an analyzing device for stirring a liquid retained in a vessel with sound wave. The Stirring device (20) comprises: a surface acoustic wave element (24) having sound generation section (24b, 24c) located on a piezoelectric substrate (24a) wherein the sound generation sections are electrically connected in parallel, and center frequencies of respective fundamental waves of the sound generation sections differ from each other, respective resonant frequency bands of the sound generation section are partially overlapped with each other, and origins of acoustic stream caused by sound wave radiated to the vessel from different sound generation section are located alternately; and a drive control section (21) for controlling a frequency of drive signal input to the surface acoustic wave element so that at least two sound generation sections of the plurality of sound generation sections generate sound wave simultaneously.

Abstract: A chemical analysis apparatus comprising reaction containers containing therein a substance to be analyzed; an agitating mechanism spaced from the substance to be analyzed and agitating said substance to be analyzed with a liquid in said reaction container; and, a measuring portion for measuring physical properties of the substance to be analyzed, said agitating mechanism having a sound supply portion supplying sound waves to the substance to be analyzed, wherein said sound supply portion comprises a mechanism changing, in time, intensity of ultrasonic waves to be irradiated so as to apply pulsation to a swirl flow in the reaction container.

Abstract: The Centrifugal Fluid Ring Reactor employs a centrifugal impeller and a fluid barrier to mix multi-phase fluids and repeatedly move the mixture through a reaction zone, where the mixture contacts catalysts and/or is subjected to electromagnetic, mechanical, nuclear, or sonic energy to create ions, free radicals or activated molecules, which initiate or promote a desired reaction. It can be used to convert carbon dioxide, methane and other gaseous carbon sources into liquid fuel at ambient temperature and pressure.

Abstract: A standing wave in a water current, which is subject to purification, is swirled in the lower mass-exchange chamber in order to create negative pressure along the central axis, the atmosphere air intake and crating of two countercurrents interacting with each other, resulting in a standing wave and oxygenation of the water current. A cylindrical mixing chamber, which is divided into the upper mass-exchange chamber and the lower mass-exchange chamber by dividing walls with a coaxial orifice towards the air-supply pipe and peripheral bypass channel. In the lower mass-exchange chamber, water, which is subject to purification, is swirled and under the negative pressure in the center it intakes air from the air-supply pipe, creating hydrosol and reaction area of ion exchange due to forming of the standing acoustic wave. Part of the processed current is outlet into the volume through a permeable wall in the side surface of the upper mass-exchange chamber.

Abstract: Systems and methods for plasma sterilization are described. The sterilization method includes placing a substance to be sterilized in a rotating chamber (e.g., drum) and exposing the substance to a radio frequency (RF) plasma. The mixing of the substance and plasma is further promoted by generating a magnetic field that produces a force on the substance in a direction opposite to the rotational direction of the chamber. In other aspects, the chamber may have a gas permeable wall. In addition, the substance may be exposed to acoustic shock waves produced by a modulating RF generator.

Abstract: An acoustic system having a plurality of speakers applying acoustic energy as a series of acoustic waves to various target sites on the exterior of the reactor to vibrate and deflect the interior surfaces of the reactor structure such that the slag is dislodged from the internal surfaces of the reactor structure. Each speaker generates acoustic waves having a waveform corresponding to the resonant frequency of the ash crystallized on the reactor structures. The acoustic waves induce vibrations and/or deflections in the portion of the reactor wall to which the slag is engaged as well as the slag itself breaking the interstitial bonds of the slag deposit and bonding holding the slag to the wall. The separated or disintegrated slag can then be gravimetrically fall to the bottom of the reactor for removal from the reactor.

Abstract: A system having improved trapping force for acoustophoresis is described where the trapping force is improved by manipulation of the frequency of the ultrasonic transducer. The transducer includes a ceramic crystal. The crystal may be directly exposed to fluid flow. The crystal may be air backed, resulting in a higher Q factor.

Abstract: A thin film tube reactor comprising a tube having a longitudinal axis, an inner cylindrical surface, a closed end and an open end, wherein the tube is rotatable about the longitudinal axis and wherein the angle of the longitudinal axis relative to the horizontal is variable between about 0 degrees and about 90 degrees.

Abstract: A gas producing device comprising a ferroelectric (FEG) or ferromagnetic (FMG) generator material wrapped by a conductor, wherein the conductor is in contact with a dielectric material. A ferroelectric or ferromagnetic generator material is polarized or magnetized. When a shock wave impacts the FEG or FMG, the polarization or magnetization of the material is rapidly destroyed. The rapid destruction of the magnet by breaking it into small pieces causes the magnetic field to go to zero very quickly. When the field changes quickly it induces a high current through the wrapped conductor or coil. When the current passes through the conductor in contact with the dielectric material it generates heat and vaporizes the dielectric material creating a high pressure gas. A reactive armor may comprising a gas producing device comprising a ferroelectric (FEG) or ferromagnetic (FMG) generator material wrapped by a conductor, wherein the conductor is in contact with a dielectric material.

Abstract: The invention relates to a device and method for extracting active principles from natural sources, using a counter-flow extractor assisted by a sound transduction system, which allows a cavitation sound field to be applied in the zone containing the material formed by the raw material of the natural product and a solvent extraction medium.